he had broken off before retiring to rest. Coleridge's dream-poem 'Kubla Khan' is another instance.1

We are

§ 8. Visual images are the most prone to occur in dreams. Frequently even auditory impressions are transformed into visual. Next to these in point of frequency come movements. doing or trying to do something. Talking is a common form of this motor activity.

§ 9. The absence of sensational correctives causes not merely an impression of reality in our dreams, but occasions an exaggeration in the effect produced far beyond the normal order of things. The nightmare is a case in point. This very distressing phenomenon usually gives rise to, or ensues from, dreams of the most startling and hideous character, all springing from an external pressure or an internal uneasiness, which in waking moments would disturb the ordinary course of thought and action in a degree vastly inferior to that produced in sleep. Dr. Reid tells that having had his head blistered on account of a fall, and a plaster put on which pained him during the night, toward morning he dreamed that he had fallen into the hands of Indians and been scalped. The experience of every one bears witness that the most trivial and insignificant impressions often produce the most distorted and exaggerated dream-experiences.

§ 10. The loss of power to correctly gauge and estimate the relations of things is further shown in erroneous appreciations of time. Images pass through the mind in trains which cover successions of events represented in dreaming as then filling hours or days, I do not know but years; but which in truth occupied only a few minutes or seconds of time in the dreamer's consciousIdeas of the time originally occupied by the events recalled in dreaming are correct if they were originally fixed correctly in the mind, but the relations to the present time of the conscious subject are wrongly apprehended, because there is no longer an objective measure of time by which rectification can be effected.

ness.

§ 11. The laws of redintegration are sufficient to explain the connection and coherence of dream-images, while the incompleteness of the consciousness accounts for their incoherence. Mr. Sully thus sums up his treatment of dream-associations: As to the form of dream-combinations, the least perfect and passive dreams owe their peculiar incongruity to the number and variety of the wholly disconnected sources of stimulation which simultaneously 1 Mental Physiology, Chap. XV. Sec. 482 ff.

supply images to consciousness. More particularly the various degrees of irritability of the cerebral elements at the time serve very much to complicate and confuse the grouping of images and to explain why the ordinary paths of association traversed in waking hours are so seldom followed. In the case of the more elaborate and closely-connected dreams much of the verisimilitude arises from the action of organic dispositions or general tendencies of association which serve as so many rough forms of dream-thought. Such a general disposition would account for our attributing some kind of words and actions to the image of a man or woman which presents itself, though what the particular words are to be depends on the co-operation of the several existing causes already spoken of. Hence the mixture of a general reasonableness with a particular incongruity which marks so many of these dreams. Next to these influences, one must reckon the play of attention under the sway either of an impulse for rational unity, or of a dominant emotional tone somehow excited at the time, which tends to harmonise all inflowing images with itself. In the act of fixing attention on the internal imagery of our dreams we unconsciously modify it, selecting, adapting, and fusing according to the pre-existent ideas or emotional tone. The emotional key which dominates so many of our dreams is fed (sic) by the effect of previous images, and still more largely by the pleasurable and painful organic sensations of the time.''

§ 12. It remains to be noticed that with respect even to our most coherent dreams, there is a complete suspension, or at least a considerable retardation of the highest operations of judgment and thought; also a great enfeeblement, to say the least of it, of those sentiments, such as the feeling of consistency and the sense. of the absurd, which are so intimately connected with these higher intellectual operations.' 2

SOMNAMBULISM.

§ 13. Where efferent activity follows the dream-consciousness, somnambulism occurs. In dreams generally, the muscular system is affected only slightly, momentarily, or spasmodically. In somnambulism there are combined and connected movements. Sleeptalking and sleep-walking with other attendant movements are the characteristic forms of this abnormal state.

1 Mind, No. V. p. 111. See also Illusions, Chap. VII., for more amplifie presentation of the same ideas. See also Carpenter, op. cit., and Maudsley's

Physiology of Mind.

2 Illusions, Chap. VII.

§ 14. In addition to motor action in obedience to the prevailing course of redintegration, there is a greater sensibility to afferent impression than in the case of ordinary dreams, but usually this sensibility is only in lines which develop experiences coincident with and collateral to the existing current of ideas. No ordinary sights or sounds, odours or tastes, pricks, pinches or blows make themselves felt; and yet if anything is addressed to the sleep-talker through either of his senses which is in harmony with the notion that occupies his mind at the time, he may take cognisance of it and interweave it (as it were) with his web of thought which may receive a new colour or design therefrom.' In many cases, however, the entire current of thought may be altered in the mind of the somnambulist by some external impression not sufficient to restore the normal conditions of consciousness.

1

§ 15. The somnambulist on awaking does not remember his actions, and if he has any remembrance of his dream-state it is only that of an ordinary dream. But frequently on a recurrence of the somnambulistic condition he remembers what occurred in the former dream-state, but without any memory of an interval, however considerable it really may have been.

§ 16. It is evident that there is no arbitrary line to be drawn between dreaming and somnambulism. In fact the latter is only an extension of the redintegrating activity of the dream consciousness to efferent activity. Every dream is liable to have some extension of this sort. The tendency of ideas to act themselves out is no less conspicuous in partially or abnormally conscious redintegration than in the ordinary states.

HYPNOTISM.

§ 17. A general state of consciousness having many features in common with the somnambulistic can be induced artificially, thus giving rise to hypnotic consciousness. Hypnotism is a peculiar condition of the nervous system induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye on one object not of an exciting nature.' The following is the general method of inducing it, with some of the chief symptoms: Take any bright object between the thumb and fore and middle fingers of the left hand; hold it from about eight to fifteen inches from the eyes, at such a distance above the forehead as may be necessary to produce the greatest possible

1 Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Mental Physiology, Chap. XV.

2 Braid.

strain upon the eyes and eyelids and enable the patient to maintain a steady fixed stare at the object. The patient must be made to understand that he is to keep the eyes steadily fixed on the object and the mind riveted on the idea of that one object ... After ten or fifteen seconds have elapsed, by gently elevating the arms and legs, it will be found that the patient has a disposition to retain them in the situation in which they have been placed, if he is intensely affected. If this is not the case, in a soft tone of voice desire him to retain the limbs in the extended position, and thus the pulse will speedily become greatly accelerated, and the limbs in process of time will become quite rigid and involuntarily fixed. It will also be found that all the organs of special sense, excepting sight, including heat and cold and muscular motion or resistance and certain mental faculties, are at first prodigiously exalted, such as happens with regard to the primary effects of opium, wine, and spirits. After a certain point, however, this exaltation of function is followed by a state of depression, far greater than the torpor of natural sleep. From this state of the most profound torpor of the organs of special sense and tonic rigidity of the muscles, they may at this stage instantly be restored to the opposite condition of extreme mobility and exalted sensibility by directing a current of air against the organ or organs we wish to excite to action, or the muscles we wish to render limber, and which had been in the cataleptiform state."1

2

§ 18. The characteristics of the hypnotic state are further described in the following passage: The preliminary state is that of abstraction produced by fixed gaze upon some unexciting and empty thing (for poverty of object engenders abstraction) and this abstraction is the logical premise of what follows. Abstraction tends to become more and more abstract, narrower and narrower; it tends to unity and afterwards to nullity. There, then, the patient is at the summit of attention, with no object left, a mere statue of attention, a listening, expectant life; a perfectly undistracted faculty dreaming of a lessening and lessening mathematical point, the end of his mind sharpened away to nothing. What happens? Any sensation that appeals is met by this brilliant attention, and relieves its diamond glare; being perceived with a force of leisure of which our distracted life affords only the rudiments. External influences are sensated, sympathised with to an extraordinary degree; harmonious music sways the body into 2 Dr. Garth Wilkinson, quoted by Dr. Carpenter op. cit.

1 Braid.

graces the most affecting; discord jars it, as though they would tear it limb from limb. Cold and heat are perceived with similar exaltation; so also smells and touches. In short, the whole man appears to be given to each perception. The body trembles like down with the wafts of the atmosphere; the world plays upon it as upon a spiritual instrument finely attuned.

b. This is the natural hypnotic state, but it may be modified artificially. The power of suggestions over the patient is excessive. If you say "What animal is it?" the patient will tell you it is a lamb or a rabbit or any other. "Does he see it?" "Yes." "What animal is it now?" putting depth and gloom into the tone of now, and thereby suggesting a difference. "Oh!" with a shudder, "It is a wolf." "What colour is it?" still glooming the phrase. "Black.” “What colour is it now?" giving the now a cheerful air. "Oh! a beautiful blue!" spoken with the utmost delight. And so you lead the subject through any dreams you please, by variations of questions and of inflections of the voice; and he sees and feels all as real.

§ 19. The postures of the body will also affect the character of the hypnotic dreams. Any position which is a prominent expression of any state of mind will induce that state of mind. Bending over as in prayer will bring on prayer; raising the head and chin will develop pride and hauteur; doubling the fist will cause anger and perhaps blows to be given by the patient.

§ 20. An extraordinary muscular power is often seen when the attention is directed to anything which calls for the exercise of strength, especially when the hypnotised person is told he can perform the task. He will thus lift heavy weights which he could not lift in the normal state, and perform athletic feats which under ordinary circumstances he would not attempt. This exaltation of the power of muscular movement even goes so far in one instance as to enable a factory girl, whose musical powers had received scarcely any cultivation and who could not speak her own language grammatically, to imitate exactly Jenny Lind's musical performances in different languages.'

§ 21. Curious effects are sometimes produced from hypnotism. partially induced. Professor Heidenhain has succeeded with a number of subjects in hypnotising one half of the brain and body, the other half remaining normal. One arm and leg can be moved at will, the other not; one eye sees distinctly, the other imper

1 Dr. Carpenter op. cit.