meaning, it then expressed an absurdity; for the Saxon Chronicle says of a person, that he promised to getembrian a church of stone, which literally would imply that he made of wood a stone church. Alfred uses it in the same manner. The first Saxon churches of our island were all built of wood.i The first church in Northumbria was built of wood. So the one of Holy Island. The church at Durham was built of split oak, and covered with reeds like those of the Scots. In Greensted church in Essex, the most ancient part, the nave or body of this church, was entirely composed of the trunks of large oaks split, and rough-hewed on both sides. They were set upright and close to each other, being let into a sill at the bottom, and a plate at the top, where they were fastened with wooden pins. "This," says Ducarel, "was the whole of the original church, which yet remains entire, though much corroded and worn by length of time. It is 29 feet 9 inches long, and 5 feet 6 inches high on the sides, which supported the primitive roof." Remains of Roman architecture have been found in various parts of England. In Mr. Carter's Ancient Architecture of England, and in the publications of Mr. Lysons, may be seen several fragments of a Roman temple and other buildings lately dug up at Bath and elsewhere; which show that our ancestors, when they settled in England, had very striking specimens of Roman architecture before them, which must have taught them to despise their own rude performances, and to wish to imitate nobler models. The circles of stones which are found in Cornwall, Oxfordshire, and Derbyshire, as well as the similar ones in Westphalia, Brunswick, and Alsatia, which Keysler mentions, show rather the absence than the knowledge of architectural science. They are placed by mere strength, without skill; they prove labour and caprice, but no art. Stonehenge is certainly a performance which exhibits more workmanship and contrivance. The stones of the first and third circles have tenons which fit to mortises in the stones incumbent. They are also shaped, though into mere simple upright stones, and the circles they describe have considerable regularity. But as it is far more probable that they were raised by the ancient Britons than by Anglo-Saxons, they need not be argued upon here. If the Roman buildings extant in Britain had been insufficient to improve the taste, and excite the emulation of the Saxons, yet the arrival of the Roman clergy, which occurred in the 7th century, must have contributed to this effect. Sax. Chron. p. 28. i Bede, iii. 25. Ducarel's Anglo-Norman Antiquities, p. 100. Ibid. j Ibid. iii. 4. It is true, that architecture as well as all the arts declined, even at Rome, after the irruption of the barbaric tribes. It is however a just opinion of Muratori," that the arts, whose exercise is necessary to life, could never utterly perish. To build houses for domestic convenience, and places, however rude, for religious worship, exacted some contrivance. But there is a great distinction between the edifices of necessity and those of cultivated art. Strong walls, well-covered roofs, and a division of apartments; whatever simple thought, profuse expense, and great labour could produce, appeared in all parts of Europe during the barbarian ages: but symmetry and right disposition of parts, the plans of elegant convenience, of beauty and tasteful ornament, were unknown to both Roman and Saxon architects, from the 6th century to very recent periods. But if the science and practice of Roman and Grecian architecture declined at Rome, with its political empire, and the erections of barbaric ignorance and barbaric taste appeared instead ; the effect, which we are to expect would result from our ancestors becoming acquainted with the Roman models, was rather a desire for great and striking architecture, than an exact imitation of the beauty they admired. Correct and elegant architecture requires that the mind of the designer and the superintendant should be cultivated with a peculiar degree of geometrical science and general taste. Masons, capable of executing whatever genius may conceive, are not alone sufficient. Of these there must have been no want, in the most barbarous ages of Europe. They who could raise the stupendous monasteries and cathedrals, which we read of or have seen, could have equally reared the most elegant buildings of ancient art, if an architect had existed who could have given their labour and ingenuity the requisite direction. A Wren or a Vitruvius, was wanted, not able workmen. The disciplined mind and cultured taste, not the manual dexterity. The arts of life are found to flourish in proportion as their productions are valued and required. When the Anglo-Saxons became converted to Christianity, they wanted monasteries and churches. And this demand for architectural ability would have produced great perfection in the art, if the state of the other arts and sciences had permitted a due cultivation of genius in this; but no single art can attain perfection if every other be neglected, or if general ignorance enfeeble and darken the mind. Patronage, therefore, though it called forth whatever mechanical labour and unlettered mind could fabricate, could not miraculously create taste and regular science. The love of sublimity is more congenial to the rude heroism of infant civilization, and therefore our ancient architecture often reached to the sublime; n De Art. Ital. t. ii. p. 353. but while we admire its vastness, its solidity, and its magnificence, we smile at its irregularities, its discordancies, and its caprice. The chief peculiarities of the Anglo-Saxon architecture, of which several specimens, though in fragments, exist, are declared to be a want of uniformity of parts, massy columns, semicircular arches, and diagonal mouldings. Of these the two first are common to all the barbaric architecture of Europe. But the semicircular arches and diagonal mouldings seem to have been more peculiar additions to the Saxon building. That the round arches were borrowed from Roman buildings, is the prevailing sentiment. It is at least a fact, that the Saxons must have seen them among the numerous specimens of the imperial architecture which they found in England. The universal diagonal ornament, or zigzag moulding, which is a very distinguishing trait of the Saxon architecture, is found disposed in two ways; one with its point projecting outwards, and the other with its point lying so as to follow the lines which circumscribe it, either horizontal, perpendicular, or circular.P On this single ornament an etymological remark may be hazarded, as it may tend to elucidate its origin. The Saxon word used to denote the adorning of a building is gefrætwian, or frætwan; and an ornament is frætew; but frætan signifies to gnaw or to eat; and upon our recollecting that the diagonal ornament of Saxon building is an exact imitation of teeth, we can hardly refrain from supposing that the ornament was an intended imitation of teeth. Frætew and frætwung, which they used to signify ornament, may be construed fretwork, or teethwork. The teeth which the Saxon diagonals represent, are, I believe, marine teeth. If so, perhaps they arose from the stringing of teeth of the large sea animals. We will mention a few of the ancient Saxon buildings we met with, and show how they are described. In 627, Paulinus built the first Christian church, in Northumbria, of wood; it was afterwards rebuilt on a larger scale, and with stone: he also built a stone church at Lincoln. His church at York was not very skilfully erected; for in less than a century afterwards, Wilfrid found its stony offices half destroyed; its roof was permeable to moisture. It had windows of fine linen cloth, or latticed wood-work; but no glazed casements, and therefore the birds flew in and out, and made nests in it. So Bede says of his church at Lincoln, that though the walls were standing, the roof had fallen down." In 676, Benedict sought cementarios, or masons, to make a church in the Roman manner, which he loved. But the Roman manner seems not to express the Roman science and taste, but rather a work of stone, and of the large size which the Romans used. It was finished in a year after its founda tion." At this period, glass-makers were not known among the Saxons. But • See Carter's Ancient Architecture. q Malmsb. 149. Bede, ii. 16. P Ibid. p. 15. Benedict had heard of them, and he sent to Gaul for some, to make latticed windows to the porticoes and cænaculum of the church. From those whom he employed, the Saxons learned the art.t In the 7th century, Cuthbert built a monastery, which is described. From wall to wall it was of four or five perches. The outside was higher than a standing man. The wall was not made of cut stone, or bricks and cement, but of unpolished stones and turf, which they had dug from the spot. Some of the stones four men could hardly lift. The roofs were made of wood and clay." As their architectural practice improved, they chose better materials. The Firman took from the church at Durham its thatched roof, and covered it with plates of lead.▾ About 709, Wilfrid flourished. He, like many others, had travelled to Rome, and of course beheld the most valuable specimens of ancient art. He brought thence some masons and artificers." Though he could not imitate these, he sought to improve the efforts of his countrymen. The church of Paulinus, at York, he completely repaired. He covered the roof with pure lead, he washed its walls from their dirt, and by glass windows (to use the words of my author) he kept out the birds and rain, and yet admitted light. At Ripon, he also erected a church with polished stone, adorned with various columns and porticoes. At Hexham, he made a similar building. It was founded deep, and made of polished stones, with many columns and porticoes, adorned with great length and height of walls. It had many windings, both above and below, carried spirally round. It was superior to any edifice on this side of the Alps. In the inside was a stony pavement, on which a workman fell from a scaffold of enormous height. In 716, we read of Croyland monastery. The marshy ground would not sustain a stony mass. The king, therefore, had a vast number of piles of oak and alders fixed in the ground, and earth was brought in boats, nine miles off, to be mingled with the timber and the marsh, to complete the foundation. In 969, a church was built. The preceding winter was employed in preparing the iron and wooden instruments, and all other necessaries. The most skilful artificers were then brought. The length and breadth of the church were measured out, deep foundations were laid on account of the neighbouring moisture, and they were strengthened by frequent percussions of the rams. While some workmen carried stones, others made cement, and others raised both aloft by a machine, with a wheel. Two towers, with their tops, soon rose, of which the smaller was visible on the west, in the front of the church. The larger in the middle, with four spires, pressed on four columns, connected together by arches passing from one to the other, that they might not sepa rate.z It is supposed that many specimens of ancient Saxon architecture yet remain; as part of St. Peter's at Oxford, part of St. Alban's abbey church, Tickencote church, near Stamford, in Lincolnshire, the porch on the south side of Shireburn minster, Barfreston church, in Kent, Iffley church, and some others. But the works and delineations of professional men must be consulted on this subject. t Bede, p. 295. Malmsb. lib. iii. y Ingulf, p. 4. " Ib. p. 243. * Eddius, Vita Wilfridi, 59-63. z 3 Gale, 399. ▾ Ib. p. 25. BOOK X. THEIR RELIGION. CHAPTER I. Utility and Decline of Saxon Paganism, and the Introduction of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. Its general Effect.-Religious Passages in the Welsh Bards. THE religion of the Saxons, while on the Continent, has been delineated in the Appendix to the first volume of this history. With that martial superstition they came into Britain. They found the island in a peculiar state on this impressive subject. In many towns and stations, they met with tomb-stones, altars, and other lapidary inscriptions; images, temples, and public works dedicated to several of the imaginary deities, which Rome, in her paganism, and her allies, had worshipped. The majority of the Britons were professing Christianity, and had sent bishops to the councils on the Continent. But the Druidism which yet had its regular temples in Bretagne, was lingering on some corners of the island, and was still, by its traditions and mysticisms, materially affecting the minds of the British bards of that period. Many of the remaining poems of Taliesin, and some passages in those of Llywarch Hen, show that mixture of the ancient Druidical feeling with their Christian faith, which evinces that their minds were a confused medley of opinions and sentiments from both sources, and therefore too fantastic to benefit or interest their Saxon conquerors, or to care for their improvement. The British clergy, as drawn by one of themselves, at that time, were by their vices, ignorance, and profligacy, still less qualified than the bards to impress the fierce descendants of Odin with either the morals or the belief of Christianity. When we observe the many forms of idolatrous superstitions that have governed and still interest the human mind in so many parts, and for so many ages, and reflect on the vast reasoning powers of man, and on the highly-gifted individuals who have believed and supported such errors and absurdities, we are astonished at their predominance. But the fact of their long prevalence, is evidence that they must be connected with some of |