same family they would honor and love the others, he gave great offence to the nobility, and their president complained on the spot that "the third estate intended to establish fraternity with them, as if they were of the same blood and equal virtue." Now the king of the French is called the king of the large class of citizens (commons) by way of excellence, and Mr. Dupin, the procurator-general of the court of cassation, and president of the chamber of deputies (speaker of the commons), in his late famous argument on duelling in that court, said, "As to the villanous serfs from whom we of the present day have the honor of descending," etc. (French papers of June, 1838.) Science is daily adding to the importance of all industrial activity and giving rapid increase to the vivid intercommunication of near and distant communities, and with it elevating the great body of the people. Events such as the arrival of the first steam-packet of a regular line, in the month of April, 1838, at New York from England, reducing time and space, are exponents of most powerful changes. More, infinitely more, can be done in the same time, with the same capital; while the rapid exchange of knowledge increases greatly the intensity of action. CXLI. 5. Discovery of America. Of the many consequences of the discovery of America, deeply affecting the whole of modern European history, I will mention here only the expansion of commerce and its increased importance-another branch of industry, with the growth of moneyed capitals and their increased importance; while until then wealth had consisted almost solely in real estate, and the land was owned by the nobility or the church. Nobility depended upon birth, but money could be acquired by every one. Money must be acknowledged in history as a very powerful popular agent. END OF PART FIRST. BOOK III. POLITICAL ETHICS PROPER. CHAPTER I. Reciprocal Relation of Right and Obligation. — The more Liberty, the more Rights, hence the more Obligations.— Danger of Absolutism in Republics, without due Attention to Political Ethics. - Additional Reason of their Importance derived from our Race.--Another Reason, from the Period in which we live and the Direction which the Study of Political Sciences of late has taken. - Private Morality necessary for Public Success, especially in Free States, yet not sufficient.—Justice and Fortitude or Perseverance chief Virtues in Political Life. - Justice the Basis of the other Virtues. — Reputation for Character of Individuals and States chiefly founded upon it. Power and Passion equally apt to blind against Justice.-Justice affords Power.-Coteries are unjust because they see distortedly. May we do what the Law either positively, or by not prohibiting, permits? - I. IT has been my endeavor to show, in the first part of this work, the original connection between right and morality, inasmuch as right is a relation necessarily proceeding from the moral character of men, and which can possibly exist only between moral beings. This connection, however, extends farther: it is a lasting one. Where men, of whatsoever condition-rulers or ruled, those that toil or those that enjoy, individually, by entire classes, or as nations-claim, maintain, or establish rights, without acknowledging corresponding and parallel obligations, there is oppression, lawlessness, and disorder; and the very ground on which the idea of all right must forever rest-the ground of mutuality or reciprocity, whether considered in the light of ethics or of natural lawmust sink from under it. It is natural, therefore, that wherever there exists a greater knowledge of right, or a more intense attention to it, than to concurrent and proportionate, obliga |