at 32°, so that the increase of capacity in the ice, during its solution, is sufficient to enable it to absorb, without any elevation of its temperature, as much caloric as has raised the temperature of an equal quantity of water 146°; and the like quantity is also again emitted on its becoming again congealed. If a quantity of water be exposed without agitation to a degree of cold equal to 24° or 25°, it will frequently acquire this temperature without freezing; but as soon as congelation begins, the thermometer will immediately rise to 32°, and the whole will remain at that temperature till all the water is converted into ice.

This latter change of capacity appears to be absolutely essential to the well-being of the universe, as affording a constant modification of the action of heat and cold, whose effects would otherwise be inordinate. If this did not take place, the whole of a mass of water which was exposed to a temperature above the boiling point would be instantly dissipated in vapour with explosion. The fact, however, is, that the capacity of those portions of the liquid, which are successively resolved into a vapour, becomes thereby sufficiently augmented to enable them to absorb the superabundant caloric as fast as it is communicated: and it is for this reason that boiling water in an open vessel never reaches a higher temperature than 212°. The polar ices would all instantaneously dissolve, whenever the temperature of the circumambient air was above 32°, if it were not that each particle absorbs a quantity of caloric in its solution, and thereby generates a degree of cold, which arrests and regulates the progress of the thaw; and the converse of this takes place in congelation, which is in its turn moderated by the heat developed in consequence of the diminution of capacity, which takes place in the water during its transition to a solid state.

CAPACITY, in law, the ability of a man, or body politic, to give or take lands, or other things, or sue actions.

Our law allows the king two capacities, a natural and a political; in the first he may . purchase lands to him and his heirs; in the latter to him and his successors. The clergy have the like.

CAPARASON, or horse cloth, a sort of cover for a horse. For led horses it is commonly made of linen cloth, bordered round with woollen, and enriched with the arms of the master upon the middle, which covers the croupe, and with two cyphers on the two sides. The capara

sons for the army are sometimes a great bear's skin, and those for stables are of single buckram in summer, and of cloth in the winter.

CAPELLA, in astronomy, a bright fixed star of the first magnitude, in the left shoulder of the constellation Auriga. It is in the Britannic Catalogue the fourteenth in order of that constellation. Its longitude is 17° 31′ 41′′, it latitude 22° 51' 47."

CAPER. See CAPPARIS.

CAPIAS, is a writ of two sorts, one whereof is called capias ad respondendum, before judgment, where an original is sued out, &c. to take the defendant and make him answer the plaintiff': and the other a writ of execution, after judgment, being of divers kinds.

CAPIAS ad respondendum, is a writ commanding the sheriff to take the body of the defendant, if he may be found in his bailiwic or county, and him safely to keep, so that he may have him in court on the day of the return, to answer to the plaintiff of a plea of debt, or trespass, or the like, as the case may be. And if the sheriff return that he cannot be found, then there issues another writ, called an alias capias; and after that another, called pluries capias; and if upon none of these he can be found, then he may be proceeded against unto outlawry. But all this being only to compel an appearance, after the defendant hath appeared, the effect of these writs is taken off, and the defendant shall be put to answer, unless it be in cases where special bail is required, and there the defendant is actually to be taken into custody.

CAPIAS ad satisfaciendum, is a writ directed to the sheriff, commanding him to take the body of the defendant, and him safely to keep, so that he may have his body in court at the return of the writ, to make the plaintiff satisfaction for his demand; otherwise he is to remain in custody till he do. When a man is once taken in execution upon this writ, no other process can be sued out against his lands or goods. But if a defendant die whilst charged in execution upon this writ, the plaintiff may, after his death, sue out new executions against his lands, goods, or chattles.

CAPIAS utlegatum, is a writ that lies against a person that is outlawed in any action, whereby the sheriff is commanded to apprehend the body of the party outlawed, and keep him in safe custody till the day of the return of the writ, and then present him to the court, there to be dealt with for his contempt. But this

being only for want of appearance, if he shall afterwards appear, the outlawry is most commonly reversed.

CAPIAS in withernam, is a writ directed to the sheriff, in case where a distress is carried out of the county, or concealed by the distrainer, so that the sheriff cannot make deliverance of the goods upon a replevin, commanding him to take so many of the distrainer's own goods, by way of reprisal, instead of the other that are so concealed.

CAPILLARY tubes, in physics, little pipes, whose canals are extremely narrow, their diameter being only a half, third, or fourth of a line.

The ascent of water, &c. in capillary tubes, is a phenomenon that has long embarrassed philosophers; for let one end of a glass tube, open at both ends, be immerged in water, and the liquor within the tube will rise to some sensible height above the external surface; or if two or more tubes are immerged in the same fluid, one of them a capillary one, the other of a larger bore; the fluid will ascend higher in the capillary tube than in the other, and this in the reciprocal ratio of the diameters of the tubes."

In order to account for this phenomenon,itwill be necessary first to premise that there is a greater attraction between the particles of glass and water, than there is between the particles of water themselves: this appears plain from experience which proves the attractive power in the surface of glass to be very strong; whence it is easy to conceive how sensible such a power must act on the surface of a fluid not viscid, as water contained within the small cavity or bore of a glass tube; as also that it will be in proportion stronger as the diameter of the bore is smaller; for that the efficacy of the power follows the inverse proportion of the diameter is evident from hence, that only such particles as are in contact with the fluid, and these immediately above the surface, can affect it. Now these particles form a periphery, contiguous to the surface, the upper part of which attracts and raises the surface, and the lower part, which is in contact with it, supports and holds it up, so that neither the thickness nor length of the tube avails any thing, only the said periphery of particles, which is always proportional to the diameter of the bore: the quantity of the fluid raised will therefore be as the surface of the bore which it fills, that is, as the diameter; as the effect would not be otherwise proportional to the cause, since the quantities follow the ratio of the diameters, the

heights to which the fluids will rise in different tubes will be inversely as the diameters.

Some, however, doubt whether the law holds throughout, of the ascent of the fluid being always higher as the tube is smaller. Dr. Hook's experiments, with tubes almost as fine as cobwebs, seem to shew the contrary. The water in these, he observes, did not rise so high as one would have expected. The highest he ever found was at 21 inches above the level of the water in the basin, which is much short of what it ought to have been by the law above mentioned.

CAPILLARY vessels, in anatomy, the smallest and extreme parts of the veins and arteries.

CAPITAL, the head, chief, or princicipal of a thing. Thus,

CAPITAL, in geography, denotes the principal city of a kingdom, province, or state; as London is the capital of Britain.

CAPITAL, among merchants, traders, and bankers, signifies the sum of money which individuals bring, to make up the common stock of a partnership when it is first formed. It is also said of the stock which a merchant at first puts into trade for his account. It signifies likewise the fund of a trading company, or corporation, in which sense the word stock is generally added to it: thus, we say, the capital stock of the bank, &c.— The word capital is opposed to that of profit or gain, though the profit often increases the capital, and becomes itself a part of it.

CAPITAL crime, such a one as subjects the criminal to capital punishment, that is, the loss of life.

CAPITAL, in architecture, the uppermost part of a column or pilaster, serving as the head or crowning, and placed immediately over the shaft, and under the entablature.

The capital is the principal part of an order of columns or pilasters. It is of a different form in the different orders, and is that which chiefly distinguishes and characterizes the orders. Such of these as have no ornaments, as the Tuscan and Doric, are called capitals of mouldings; and the rest, which bave leaves and other ornaments, capitals of sculptures.

CAPITAL, Tuscan, consists of three members, viz. an abacus, under this an ovalo or quarter round, and under that a neck or colarino, terminating in an astragal or fillet, belonging to the shaft.

CAPITAL, Doric, has its abacus plain,

and three annulets under the ovolo, or echinus.

CAPITAL, Ionic, that which is distinguished by volutes and ovolos. The ovolo is adorned with eggs and darts.

CAPITAL, Corinthian, is the richest of all, being adorned with a double row of leaves, with eight large and as many small volutes, situated round a body, which by some is called campana, or bell, and by others tambour or capsule.

CAPITAL, composite, that which has the double row of leaves of the Corinthian, and the volutes of the Ionic capital.

CAPITALS, among printers, large or initial letters, in which titles are composed.

The English printers some years ago made it a rule to begin almost every substantive with a capital; a custom not more absurd than that of using no capitals at all.

Capitals, however, may very properly commence the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing: the first word after a period, and if the two sentences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation; but if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are thrown into one general group, or if the construction of the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them except the first, may begin with a small letter: the appellations of the deity: proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships: adjectives derived from the proper names of places: the first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form; but when a quotation is intro duced obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: the first word of an example: every substantive and principal word in the titles of books: and the first word of every line in poetry. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are also written in capitals. Other words, beside the preceding, may likewise begin with capitals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. The ancient MSS. both Greek and Latin, are written wholly in capitals. CAPITATION, a tax or imposition raised on each person, in consideration of his labour, industry, office, rank, &c.

CAPITE, in law, an ancient tenure of land, which was held immediately of the king, as of his crown, either by knight's service or socage. The tenure in capite was of two kinds, the one principal and general, the other special or subaltern. The former was of the king, the fountain VOL. III.

from whence all tenures have their main original. The latter was of a particular snbject, so called, because he was the first that granted the land in such manner, and hence he was styled "capitalis dominus, and caput terræ illius." This tenure is now abolished, and, with others, turned into common socage.

CAPITULATION, in military affairs, a treaty made between the garrison or inhabitants of a place besieged, and the besiegers, for the delivering up the place on certain conditions.

The most honourable and ordinary terms of capitulation are, to march out at the breach, with arms and baggage, drums beating, colours flying, a match lighted at both ends, and some pieces of cannon, waggons, and convoys for their baggage, and for the sick and wounded.

CAPPARIS, in botany, English caperbush, a genus of the Polyandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Putamineæ. Caparides, Jussieu : Essential character: calyx four-leaved, coriaceous; petals four; stamens long; berry corticose, one-celled, pedicelled. There are twenty-five species. This genus consists of shrubs. The leaves are simple in the berry-bearing sorts, having fre quently two spines at the base, but in those which bear pods commonly naked or bi-glandular. Flowers in a kind of corymb, terminating. Some of the species have a berry, others have a silique or pod for a fruit. C. spinosa, common caperbush, is a low shrub, generally growing out of the joints of old walls, the fissures of rocks, and among rubbish. It grows wild in the southern countries of Europe, and in the Levant. Dr. Smith thinks it surprising that this beautiful shrub,which is as common in the South of France as the bramble with us, should be almost unknown in our gardens, where it can scarcely be made to flower, except in a stove with great care.

CAPRA, the goat, in natural history, a genus of Mammalia, of the order Pecora. Generic character: horns hollow, compressed; rough, almost close at their base, turned back; eight lower fore teeth; no tusks; chin in the male bearded. Of these there are three species, of which we shall attend particularly to the C. hircus, or common goat. This animal is found domesticated in almost every part of the Globe, but was introduced into America only on its discovery by Europeans. In its internal structure it extremely resembles sheep, but is far superior to them in alertness, sentiment, and intelligence. The goat approaches

man without difficulty, is won by kindness, and capable of attachment. Confinement is ill suited to his excursive tendencies, and he is fond of retiring into solitude, and ranging on the cliffs of the most rugged and barren mountains. He will not only climb and stand on the loftiest craggs, but sleep also on the verge of the most steep and terrific precipices. He is capable of enduring both cold and heat, and the most ardent rays of the sun produce in him no vertigo or sickness of any description; the violence of storms causes him little or no inconveniencies, but he suffers somewhat from very rigorous cold. His organs are extremely supple, and his frame is robust and nervous. Almost all herbs are used by him for food, and few are noxious to him. His favourite nourishment, however, is derived from the tender branches and bark of trees and shrubs, from lichens and hemlock. He is sprightly, roaming and lascivious in the extreme; inconstant and capricious in his temper; and the vivacity of his feelings is exhibited in a perpetual succession of rapid, abrupt, and sportive movements. He prefers barren heats to luxuriant pastures, avoids moist and marshy places, and never flourishes but in mountainous, or at least elevated situations. The female will allow itself to be sucked by the young of various other animals, and a foal which has lost its mother has been seen thus nourished by a goat, which, in order to facilitate the process, was placed on a barrel. The attachment between the nurse and foal appeared strong and natural. The milk of the goat, containing few oily particles, is much valued in medicine, and being easily curdled, is formed into cheese of high estimation.The celebrated Parmesan cheese is made of it.

The goats of Wales are generally white, and are both stronger and larger than those of other hilly countries. Their flesh is much used by the inhabitants, and often dried and salted, and substituted for bacon. The skins of kids are much valued for gloves, and were formerly employed in furniture, when painted with rich colours, of which they are particularly capable, and embellished with ornamental flowers and works of silver and gold.

The extremely unpleasant odour attending these animals is supposed to be beneficial, and horses appear so much refreshed by it, that a goat is on this account often kept in the stables of the great. Of the many varieties of this

species, that of Angora is the most curious. It is principally valued for its long and exquisitely fine hair, which it loses by a change of pasture from the immediate vicinity of Angora, and which the owners are incessantly assiduous in washing and combing, and otherwise promoting its growth and cleanlinessIt is formed into camlets of the finest texture.

The Syrian goat is remarkable for its pendulous ears, and is common in various parts of the East: the animals of this variety are driven in flocks through the Oriental towns every morning and evening, and each house-keeper sees drawn from them, before her door, as much milk as she is in want of. Mammalia, Plate VI. fig. 6.

See

The Chamois goat inhabits the most elevated mountains of Europe, and feeds on shrubs, roots and herbs its chase is extremely laborious and dangerous: its sight and smell are both exquisite: it is particularly shy its swiftness is also very great, and it makes its way with speed over the most pointed rocks, can mount or descend precipices with facility, and hang on steeps nearly perpendicular.-Plate VI. fig. 5.

C. Ibex, or the Ibex goat of Pennant. This is considerably larger than the last species: its blood was formerly deemed a specific in the materia medica for various diseases its strength and feeling are extraordinary: it is found in the Carpathian and Pyrennean mountains, in the Rhaetian Alps, in Crete, and in Tartary. When hardly pressed, it will throw itself from a vast height with little or no injury, contriving always to fall on its horns. Plate IV. fig. 4.

C. Caucasica, the Caucasan goat, inhabits the most rugged rocks of mount Caucasus, and is, perhaps, superior in vigour and agility to all that have been mentioned. A bezoar is sometimes found in the stomach of this animal, as well as in that of several others quadrupeds. Monardes states that he saw one of these creatures leap from a high tower, and having reached the ground upon his horns, immediately, without any wound, dislocation, or contusion, rise on his feet.

CAPRARIA, in botany, goat-weed, a genus of the Didynamia Angiospermia class and order. Natural order of Personatæ. Scrophularia, Jussieu: Essential character: calyx five-parted; corol bell-form, five-cleft, acute; capsules bivalve, bilocular, many seeded. There are seven species, of which C. biflora, shrubby goat-weed, or sweet-weed, is a shrub,

seldom exceeding four feet in height; branches long and woody; leaves oblong acuminate at both ends, an inch and half long; peduncles one-flowered, slender; flowers without scent, calyx smooth; corolla white; capsule furrowed on both sides the length of the calyx; seeds small. It is common in Jamaica, in all the Caribbees, and the neighbouring continent.

CAPRICORN, in astronomy, one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, represented on globes in the form of a goat, and characterized in books by this mark VS. See ASTRONOMY.

CAPRICORN, tropic of, a lesser circle of the sphere, which is parallel to the equinoctial, and at 23° 30' distance from it southwards.

CAPRIFOLIA, the third order of the eleventh class of Jussieu's natural system. It has the following characters: calyx one-leafed, superior, often calycled or bracteated at its base; corolla generally monopetalous, either regular or irregular, in a few instances polypetalous; petals united by a broad base; stamens of a definite number, often five: in the monopetalous genera always inserted into the corolla, and alternating with its segments; in the polypetalous ones sometimes placed upon the pistil, alternating with the petals, and sometimes fixed to the middle of each petal; germ inferior; style generally single, sometimes none; stigma single, or rarely three; fruit inferior, either a berry or a one or many-celled capsule; each cell with one or many seeds; corculum of the seed in a large upper cavity of the large solid perisperm; stem either a shrub or a tree, rarely herbaceous; leaves in most opposite, in a few alternate; stipules none.

CAPRIMULGUS, the goatsucker, in natural history, a genus of birds of the order Passeres. Generic character: bill short and hooked at the end; mouth extremely wide, with seven or more stiff bristles on the upper mandible; tongue entire at the end and small; tail of ten feathers, and not forked; legs short; toes united as far as the first joint by a membrane; middle claw with a broad serrate edge.

The birds of this genus, unless disturbed, or in cloudy and gloomy weather, seldom make their appearance by day, but by night are active and alert in the pursuit of insects, which constitute their food. The female deposits only two eggs, and on the bare ground. There are according to Gmelin nineteen

species, though Latham enumerates only fifteen. The most curious and interesting

are

C. Europæus, or the European goatsucker. This is the only species met with in Europe, in every part of which it may be found, though no where abundantly, and it is never observed to unite in companies. Being migratory, it arrives in England in May, and quits it in September. It is a mortal enemy to various insects, and particularly to cockchafers, six of which, besides four very large moths, have been found in its stomach. The glare of day is overpowering to its sight, which is cleared by twilight. During this, therefore, it is in quest of food, and in full activity. It is singular for perching, not across a branch as other birds do, but lengthwise: the female lays her eggs on the ground instead of a nest, apparently little anxious for their maturity: though when disturbed she will move them it is said to a place imagined by her to be more secure.

C. Virginianus, or the Virginian goatsucker. This bird arrives in Virginia in April, and inhabits principally the mountainous parts of that country. As the evening advances, it approaches the habitations of man, and, fixing on a post or rail, utters many times one plaintive cry; and from the evening till the morning this movement and cry are with short intervals repeated. Instead of pursuing insects always on the wing, it often leaps up for them as they pass with the most successful dexterity, failing back again upon its perching place. Its flesh is valued for food.

CAPSICUM, in botany, English Guineapepper, a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Lurida. Solanex, Jussieu. Essential character: corolla rotated; berry exsuccous. There are five species according to Martyn, but many botanists mention sixteen, and others twenty. C. annum, annual capsicum, or Guinea-pepper, is two feet high, upright, branched, leaves ovate lanceolate, smooth, and of a dark green colour; flowers white, lateral, solitary. The fruit is a berry, varying in size and shape, extremely smooth and shining on the outside, scarlet or yellow. The beauty of the capsicum is in their ripe fruit, forming a pretty contrast to their dark leaves and white flowers, making a beautiful appearance in the gardens when properly disposed, or when planted in pots for the decoration of courts. Most of the sorts of capsicum are na