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of the saponification value (see above) and of the optical rotation, and in special cases the isolation and quantitative determination of characteristic substances, leads in very many cases to reliable results. The colour, the boiling-point, the specific gravity and solubility in alcohol serve as most valuable adjuncts in the examination with a view to form an estimate of the genuineness and value of a sample. Quite apart from the genuineness of a sample, its special aroma constitutes the value of an oil, and in this respect the judging of the value of a given oil may, apart from the purity, be more readily solved by an experienced perfumer than by the chemist. Thus roses of different origin or even of different years will yield rose oils of widely different value. The cultivation of plants for essential oils has become a large industry, and is especially practised as an industry in the south of France (Grasse, Nice, Cannes). The rose oil industry, which had been for centuries located in the valleys of Bulgaria, has now been taken up in Germany (near Leipzig), where roses are specially cultivated for the production of rose oil. India and China are also very large producers of essential oils. Owing to the climate other countries are less favoured, although lavender and peppermint are largely cultivated at Mitcham in Surrey, in Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire. Lavender and peppermint oils of English origin rank as the best qualities. As an illustration of the extent to which this part of the industry suffers from the climate, it may be stated that oil from lavender plants grown in England never produces more than 7 to 10% linalool acetate, which gives the characteristic scent to lavender oil, whilst oil from lavender grown in the south of France frequently yields as much as 35% of the ester. The proof that this is due mainly to climatic influences is furnished by the fact that Mitcham lavender transplanted to France produces an oil which year by year approximates more closely in respect of its contents of linalool acetate to the product of the French plant. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For the fixed oils, fats and waxes, see C. R. A. Wright, Fixed Oils, Fals, Butters and Waxes (London, 2nd ed. by C. A. Mitchell, 1903); W. Brannt, Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils (London, 1896); J. Lewkowitsch, Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats and Waxes (London, 4th ed., 3 vols., 1909; also German ed., Brunswick, 1905; French ed., Paris, vol. i. 1906, vol. ii. 1908, vol. iii. 1909); Laboratory Companion to Fats and Oil Industries (London, 1902); Cantor Lectures of the Society of Arts, Oils and Fats, their Uses and Applications; Groves and Thorp, Chemical Technology, vol. ii.; A. H. Gill, Oil Analyses (1909); G. Hefter, Technologie der Fette und Öle (Berlin, vol. i. 1906; vol. ii. 1908); L. Ubbelohde, Handbuch der Chemie und Technologie der Ole und Fette (Leipzig, vol. i., 1908); R. Benedikt and F. Ulzer, Analyse der Felle und Wachsarten (Berlin, 1908); J. Fritsch, Les Huiles et graisses d'origine animale (Paris, 1907).

For the essential oils, see F. B. Power, Descriptive Catalogue of Essential Oils; J. C. Sawer, Odorographia (London, 1892 and 1894); E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, Die aetherischen Öle (Berlin, 1899), trans. (1900) by E. Kremers under the title Volatile Oils (Milwaukee, Wisconsin); F. W. Semmler, Die aetherischen Ole nach ihren chemischen Bestandteilen unter Berücksichtigung der geschichtlichen Entwickelung (Leipzig); M. Otto, L'Industrie des parfums (Paris, 1909): Q. Aschan, Chemie der alicyklischen Verbindungen (Brunswick, 1905); F. R. Heussler (translated by Pond), The Chemistry of the Terpenes (London, 1904). (J. LI.)

OIRON, a village of western France, in the department of Deux-Sèvres, 71 m. E. by S. of Thouars by road. Oiron is celebrated for its château, standing in a park and originally built in the first half of the 16th century by the Gouffier farly, rebuilt in the latter half of the 17th century by Francis of Aubusson, duke of La Feuillade, and purchased by Madame de Montespan, who there passed the latter part of her life. Marshal Villeroy afterwards lived there. The château consists of a main building with two long projecting wings, one of which is a graceful structure of the Renaissance period built over a cloister. The adjoining church, begun in 1518, combines the Gothic and Renaissance styles and contains the tombs of four members of the Gouffier family. These together with other parts of the château and church were mutilated by the Protestants in 1568. The park contains a group of four dolmens.

For the Oiron pottery see CERAMICS.

OISE, a river of northern France, tributary to the Seine, flowing south-west from the Belgian frontier and traversing the departments of Aisne, Oise and Seine-et-Oise. Length, 187 m.; area of basin 6437 sq. m. Rising in Belgium, 5 m. S.E. of Chimay (province of Namur) at a height of 980 ft., the river enters France after a course of little more than 9 m. Flowing through the district of Thiérache, it divides below Guise into several arms and proceeds to the confluence of the Serre, near La Fère (Aisne). Thence as far as the confluence of the Ailette its course lies through well-wooded country to Compiègne, |

a short distance above which it receives the Aisne. Skirting the forests of Compiègne, Halatte and Chantilly, all on its left bank, and receiving near Creil the Thérain and the Brèche, the river flows past Pontoise and debouches into the Seine 39 m. below Paris. Its channel is canalized (depth 6 ft. 6 in.) from Janville above Compiègne, to its mouth over a section 60 m. in length. Above Janville a lateral canal continued by the Sambre-Oise canal accompanies the river to Landrecies. It communicates with the canal system of Flanders and with the Somme canal by way of the St Quentin canal (Crozat branch) which unites with it at Chauny. The same town is its point of junction with the Aisne-Oise canal, by which it is linked with the Eastern canal system.

410,049; area 2272 sq. m.

OISE, a department of northern France, three-fourths of which belonged to Ile-de-France and the rest to Picardy, bounded N. by Somme, E. by Aisne, S. by Seine-et-Marne and Seine-etOise, and W. by Eure and Seine-Inférieure. Pop. (1906) The department is a moderately elevated plateau with pleasant valleys and fine forests, such as those of Compiègne, Ermenonville, Chantilly and Halatte, all in the south-east. It belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Scine the Somme and the Bresle, which flow into the English Channel, draining but a small area. The most important river is the Oise, which flows through a broad and fertile valley from north-east to south-west, past the towns of Noyon, Compiègne, Pont St Maxence and Creil. On its right it receives the Brèche and the Thérain, and on its left the Aisne, which brings down a larger volume of water than the Oise itself, the Authonne, and the Nonette, which irrigates the valley of Senlis and Chantilly. The Ourcq, a tributary of the Marne, in the south-east, and the Epte, a tributary of the Seine, in the west, also in part belong to the department. These streams are separated by ranges of slight elevation or by isolated hills, the highest point (770 ft.) being in the ridge of Bray, which stretches from Dieppe to Précy-sur-Oise. The lowest point is at the mouth of the Oise, only 66 ft. above sea-level. The climate is very variable, but the range of temperature is moderate.

Clay for bricks and earthenware, sand and building-stone are among the mineral products of Oise, and peat is also worked. Pierrefonds, Gouvieux, Chantilly and Fontaine Bonneleau have mineral springs. Wheat, oats and other cereals, potatoes and sugar beet are the chief agricultural crops. Cattle are reared more especially in the western districts, where dairying is actively carried on. Bee-keeping is general. Racing stables are numerous in the neighbourhood of Chantilly and Compiègne. Among the industries of the department of manufacture of sugar and alcohol from beetroot occupies a foremost place. The manufacture of furniture, brushes (Beauvais) and other wooden goods and of toys, fancy-ware, buttons, fans and other articles in wood, ivory, bone or mother-of-pearl are widespread industries. There are also woollen and cotton mills, and the making of woollen fabrics, blankets, carpets (Beauvais), hosiery and lace (Chantilly and its vicinity) is actively carried on. Creil and the neighbouring Montataire form an important metallurgical centre. Oise is served by the Northern railway, on which Creil is an important junction, and its commerce is facilitated by the Oise and its lateral canal and the Aisne, which afford about 70 m. of navigable waterway.

There are four arrondissements-Beauvais, Clermont, Compiègne and Senlis-with 35 cantons and 701 communes. The department forms the diocese of Beauvais (province of Reims) and part of the region of the II. army corps and of the académie (educational division) of Paris. Its court of appeal is at Amiens. The principal places are Beauvais, the capital, Chantilly, Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, Compiègne, Noyon, Pierrefonds, Creil and Senlis, which are treated separately. Among the more populous places not mentioned is Méru (5317), a centre for fancy-ware manufacture. The department abounds in old churches, among which, besides those of Beauvais, Noyon and Senlis, may be mentioned those at Morienval (11th and 12th centuries), Maignelay (15th and 16th centuries), Crépy-en-Valois (St Thomas, 12th, 13th and 15th centuries), St Leu d'Esserent (mainly 12th

century), Tracy-le-Val (mainly 12th century), Villers St Paul | okapi appears to be intermediate between that of the giraffe (12th and 13th centuries), St Germer-de-Fly (a fine example of the transition from Romanesque to Gothic architecture), and St Martin-aux-Bois (13th, 14th and 15th centuries). Pontpoint preserves the buildings of an abbey founded towards the end of the 14th century and St Jean-aux-Bois the remains of a priory including a church of the 13th century. There are Gallo-Roman remains of Champlieu close to the forest of Compiègne. At Ermenonville there is a chateau of the 17th century where Rousseau died in 1778.

on the one hand and that of the extinct Palaeotragus (or Samotherium) of the Lower Pliocene deposits of southern Europe on the other. It has, for instance, a greater development of air-cells in the diplöe than in the latter, but much less than in the former. Again, in Palaeotragus the horns (present only in the male) are situated immediately over the eye-sockets, in Ocapia they are placed just behind the latter, while in Giraffa they are partly on the parietals. In general form, so far as can be judged from the disarticulated skeleton, the okapi was more like an antelope than a giraffe, the fore and hind cannon-bones, and consequently the entire limbs, being of approximately equal length. From this it seems probable that Palacotragus and Ocapia indicate the ancestral type of the giraffe-line; while it has been further suggested that the apparently hornless Helladotherium of the

10 OJIBWAY (OJIBWA), or CHIPPEWAY (CHIPPEWA), the name given by the English to a large tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They must not be confused with the Chipewyan tribe of Athabascan stock settled around Lake Athabasca, Canada. They formerly occupied a vast tract of country around Lakes Huron and Superior, and now are settled on reservations in the neighbourhood. The name is from a word meaning" to roast till puckered " or " drawn up," in reference, it is suggested, to a peculiar seam in their mocassins, though other explanations have been proposed. They call themselves Anishinabeg ("spontaneous men "), and the French called them Saulteurs ("People of the Falls"), from the first group of them being met at Sault Ste Marie. Tribal traditions declare they migrated from the St Lawrence region together with the Ottawa and Potawatomi, with which tribes they formed a confederacy known as "The Three Fires." When first encountered about 1640 the Ojibway were inhabiting the coast of Lake Superior, surrounded by the Sioux and Foxes on the west and south. During the 18th century they conquered these latter and occupied much of their territory. Throughout the Colonial wars they were loyal to the French, but fought for the English in the War of Independence and the War of 1812, and thereafter permanently maintained peace with the Whites. The tribe was divided into ten divisions. They lived chiefly by hunting and fishing. They had many tribal myths, which were collected by Henry R. Schoolcraft in his Algic Researches (1839), upon which Longfellow founded his "Hiawatha."

See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; also W. J. Hoffmann, "Midewiwin of the Ojibwa," in 7th Report of Bureau of American Ethnology (1891); W. W. Warren,History of the Ojibways," vol. v., Minnesota Historical Society's Collections; G. Copway, History of the Ojibway Indians (Boston, 1850); P. Jones, History of the Ojebway Indians (1861); A. E. Jenks," Wild Rice Gatherers," 19th Report of Bureau of American Ethnology (1900).

OKAPI, the native name of an African ruminant mammal (Ocapia johnstoni), belonging to the Giraffidae, or giraffe-family, but distinguished from giraffes by its shorter limbs and neck, the absence of horns in the females, and its very remarkable type of colouring. Its affinity with the giraffes is, however, clearly revealed by the structure of the skull and teeth, more especially

the bilobed crown to the incisor-like lower canine teeth. At the shoulder the okapi stands about 5 ft. In colour the sides of the face are puce, and the neck and most of the body purplish, but the buttocks and upper part of both fore and hind limbs are transversely barred with black and white, while their lower portion is mainly white with black fetlock-rings, and in the front pair a vertical black stripe on the anterior surface. Males have a pair of dagger-shaped horns on the forehead, the tips of which, in some cases at any rate, perforate the hairy skin with which the rest of the horns are covered. As in all forest-dwelling animals, the ears are large and capacious. The tail is shorter than in giraffes, and not tufted at the tip. The okapi, of which the first entire skin sent to Europe was received in England from Sir H. H. Johnston in the spring of 1901, is a native of the Semliki forest, in the district between Lakes Albert and Albert Edward. From certain differences in the striping of the legs, as well as from variation in skull-characters, the existence of more than a single species has been suggested; but further evidence is required before such a view can be definitely accepted.

Specimens in the museum at Tervueren near Brussels show that in fully adult males the horns are subtriangular and inclined somewhat backwards; each being capped with a small polished epiphysis, which projects through the skin investing the rest of the horn. As regards its general characters, the skull of the

Female Okapi.

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Grecian Pliocene may occupy a somewhat similar position in regard to the horned Sivatherium of the Indian Siwaliks.

For these and other allied extinct genera see PECORA; for a full description of the okapi itself the reader should refer to an illustrated memoir by Sir E. Ray Lankester in the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London (xvi. 6, 1902), entitled "On Okapia, a New Genus of Giraffidae from Central Africa."

Little is known with regard to the habits of the okapi. It appears, however, from the observations of Dr J. David, who spent some time in the Albert Edward district, that the creature dwells in the most dense parts of the primeval forest, where there is an undergrowth of solid-leaved, swamp-loving plants, such as arum, Donax and Phrynium, which, with orchids and climbing plants, form a thick and confused mass of vegetation. The leaves of these plants are blackish-green, and in the gloom of the forest, grow more or less horizontally, and are glistening with moisture. The effect of the light falling upon them is to produce along the midrib of each a number of short white streaks of light, which contrast most strongly with the shadows cast by the leaves themselves, and with the general twilight gloom of the forest. On the other hand, the thick layer of fallen leaves on the ground, and the bulk of the stems of the forest trees are bluishbrown and russet, thus closely resembling the decaying leaves in an European forest after heavy rain; while the whole effect is precisely similar to that produced by the russet head and body and the striped thighs and limbs of the okapi. The long and mobile muzzle of the okapi appears to be adapted for feeding

on the low forest underwood and the swamp-vegetation. The | gegründeten Classification der Thiere, the first of the series of small size of the horns of the males is probably also an adaptation to life in thick underwood. In Dr David's opinion an okapi in its native forest could not be seen at a distance of more than twenty or twenty-five paces. At distances greater than this it is impossible to see anything clearly in these equatorial forests, and it is very difficult to do so even at this short distance. This suggests that the colouring of the okapi is of purely protective type.

works which placed him at the head of the "natur-philosophie " or physio-philosophical school of Germany. In it he extended to physical science the philosophical principles which Kant had applied to mental and moral science. Oken had, however, in this application been preceded by J. G. Fichte, who, acknowledging that the materials for a universal science had been discovered by Kant, declared that nothing more was needed than a systematic co-ordination of these materials; and this task Fichte undertook in his famous Doctrine of Science (Wissenschaftslehre), the aim of which was to construct a priori all knowledge. In this attempt, however, Fichte did little more than indicate the path; it was reserved for F. W. J. von Schelling fairly to enter upon it, and for Oken, following him, to explore its mazes yet further, and to produce a systematic plan of the country so surveyed.

By the Arabianized emancipated slaves of the Albert Edward district the okapi is known as the kenge, ô-à-pi being the Pigmies' name for the creature. Dr David adds that Junker may undoubtedly claim to be the discoverer of the okapi, for, as stated on p. 299 of the third volume of the original German edition of his Travels, he saw in 1878 or 1879 in the Nepo district a portion of the skin with the characteristic black and white stripes. Junker, by whom it was mistaken for a large water-chevrotain In the Grundriss der Naturphilosophie of 1802 Oken sketched or zebra-antelope, states that to the natives of the Nepo district the outlines of the scheme he afterwards devoted himself to the okapi is known as the makapé. (R. L.*) perfect. The position which he advanced in that remarkable OKEHAMPTON, a market town and municipal borough in the work, and to which he ever after professed adherence, is that Tavistock parliamentary division of Devonshire, England," the animal classes are virtually nothing else than a representaon the east and west Okement rivers, 22 m. W. by N. of Exeter by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2569. The church of All Saints has a fine Perpendicular tower, left uninjured when the nave and chancel were burned down in 1842. Glass is made from granulite found in the Meldon Valley, 3 m. distant. Both branches of the river abound in small trout. Okehampton Castle, one of the most picturesque ruins in Devon, probably dates from the 15th century, though its keep may be late Norman. It was dismantled under Henry VIII., but considerable portions remain of the chapel, banqueting hall and herald's tower. Immediately opposite are the traces of a supposed British camp, and of the Roman road from Exeter to Cornwall. The custom of tolling the curfew still prevails in Okehampton. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 503 acres.

Okehampton (Oakmanton) was bestowed by William the Conqueror on Baldwin de Brioniis, and became the caput of the barony of Okehampton. At the time of the Domesday Survey of 1086 it already ranked as a borough, with a castle, a market paying 4 shillings, and four burgesses. In the 18th century the manor passed by marriage to the Courtenays, afterwards earls of Devon, and Robert de Courtenay in 1220 gave the king a palfrey to hold an annual fair at his manor of Okehampton, on the vigil and feast day of St Thomas the Apostle. In the reign of Henry III. the inhabitants received a charter (undated) from the earl of Devon, confirming their rights "in woods and in uplands, in ways and in paths, in common of pastures, in waters and in mills. They were to be free from all toll and to elect yearly a portreeve and a beadle." A further grant of privileges was bestowed in 1292 by the earl of Devon, but no charter of incorporation was granted until that from James I. in 1623, and the confirmation of this by Charles II. in 1684 continued to be the governing charter, the corporation consisting of a mayor, seven principal burgesses and eight assistant burgesses, until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. On a petition from the inhabitants the town was reincorporated by a new charter in 1885. Okehampton returned two members to parliament in 1300, and again in 1312 and 1313, after which there was an intermission till 1640, from which date two members were returned regularly until by the Reform Act of 1832 the borough was disfranchised.

See Victoria County History, Devonshire; W. B. Bridges, History of Okehampton (1889).

OKEN, LORENZ (1779-1851), German naturalist, was born at Bohlsbach, Swabia, on the 1st of August 1779. His real name was Lorenz Ockenfuss, and under that name he was entered at the natural history and medical classes in the university of Würzburg, whence he proceeded to that of Göttingen, where he became a privat-docent, and abridged his name to Oken. As Lorenz Oken he published in 1802 his small work entitled Grundriss der Naturphilosophie, der Theorie der Sinne, und der darauf

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tion of the sense-organs, and that they must be arranged in accordance with them." Agreeably with this idea, Oken contended that there are only five animal classes: (1) the Dermatozoa, or invertebrates; (2) the Glossozoa, or Fishes, as being those animals in which a true tongue makes, for the first time, its appearance; (3) the Rhinozoa, or Reptiles, wherein the nose opens for the first time into the mouth and inhales air; (4) the Olozoa, or Birds, in which the ear for the first time opens externally; and (5) Ophthalmozoa, or Mammals, in which all the organs of sense are present and complete, the eyes being movable and covered with two lids.

In 1805 Oken made another characteristic advance in the application of the a priori principle, by a book on generation (Die Zeugung), wherein he maintained the proposition that "all organic beings originate from and consist of vesicles or cells. These vesicles, when singly detached and regarded in their original process of production, are the infusorial mass or protoplasma (urschleim) whence all larger organisms fashion themselves or are evolved. Their production is therefore nothing else than a regular agglomeration of Infusoria-not, of course, of species already elaborated or perfect, but of mucous vesicles or points in general, which first form themselves by their union or combination into particular species."

One year after the production of this remarkable treatise, Oken advanced another step in the development of his system, and in a volume published in 1806, in which D. G. Kieser (17791862) assisted him, entitled Beiträge zur vergleichenden Zoologie, Anatomie, und Physiologie, he demonstrated that the intestines originate from the umbilical vesicle, and that this corresponds to the vitellus or yolk-bag. Caspar Friedrich Wolff had previously proved this fact in the chick (Theoria Generationis, 1774), but he did not see its application as evidence of a general law. Oken showed the importance of the discovery as an illustration of his system. In the same work Oken described and recalled attention to the corpora Wolffiana, or " primordial kidneys." The reputation of the young privat-docent of Göttingen had meanwhile reached the ear of Goethe, and in 1807 Oken was invited to fill the office of professor extraordinarius of the medical sciences in the university of Jena. He accepted the call, and selected for the subject of his inaugural discourse his ideas on the "Signification of the Bones of the Skull," based upon a discovery he had made in the previous year. This famous lecture was delivered in the presence of Goethe, as privy. councillor and rector of the university, and was published in the same year, with the title, Ueber die Bedeutung der Schädelknochen.

With regard to the origin of the idea, Oken narrates in his Isis that, walking one autumn day in 1806 in the Harz forest, he stumbled upon the blanched skull of a deer, picked up the partially dislocated bones, and contemplated them for a while, when the truth flashed across his mind, and he exclaimed, “It

is a vertebral column!" At a meeting of the German naturalists held at Jena some years afterwards Professor Kieser gave an account of Oken's discovery in the presence of the grand-duke, which account is printed in the tageblatt, or 'proceedings," of that meeting. The professor stated that Oken communicated to him his discovery when journeying in 1806 to the island of Wangeroog. On their return to Göttingen Oken explained his ideas by reference to the skull of a turtle in Kieser's collection, which he disarticulated for that purpose with his own hands. "It is with the greatest pleasure," wrote Kieser, that I am able to show here the same skull, after having it thirty years in my collection. The single bones of the skull are marked by Oken's own handwriting, which may be so easily known."

The range of Oken's lectures at Jena was a wide one, and they were highly esteemed. They embraced the subjects of natural philosophy, general natural history, zoology, comparative anatomy, the physiology of man, of animals and of plants. The spirit with which he grappled with the vast scope of science is characteristically illustrated in his essay Ueber das Universum als Fortsetzung des Sinnensystems, 1808. In this work he lays it down that "organism is none other than a combination of all the universe's activities within a single individual body." This doctrine led him to the conviction that "world and organism are one in kind, and do not stand merely in harmony with each other." In the same year he published his Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts, &c., in which he advanced the proposition that "light could be nothing but a polar tension of the ether, evoked by a central body in antagonism with the planets, and heat was none other than a motion of this ether "-a sort of vague anticipation of the doctrine of the " correlation of physical forces." In 1809 Oken extended his system to the mineral world, arranging the ores, not according to the metals, but agreeably to their combinations with oxygen, acids and sulphur. In 1810 he summed up his views on organic and inorganic nature into one compendious system. In the first edition of the Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie, which appeared in that and the following years, he sought to bring his different doctrines into mutual connexion, and to "show that the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms are not to be arranged arbitrarily in accordance with single and isolated characters, but to be based upon the cardinal organs or anatomical systems, from which a firmly established number of classes would necessarily be evolved; that each class, moreover, takes its starting-point from below, and consequently that all of them pass parallel to each other "; and that, as in chemistry, where the combinations follow a definite numerical law, so also in anatomy the organs, in physiology the functions, and in natural history the classes, families, and even genera of minerals, plants, and animals present a similar arithmetical ratio." The Lehrbuch procured for Oken the title of Hofrath, or court-councillor, and in 1812 he was appointed ordinary professor of the natural sciences.

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In 1816 he commenced the publication of his well-known periodical, entitled Isis, eine encyclopädische Zeitschrift, vorzüglich für Naturgeschichte, vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie. In this journal appeared essays and notices not only on the natural sciences but on other subjects of interest; poetry, and even comments on the politics of other German states, were occasionally admitted. This led to representations and remonstrances from the governments criticized or impugned, and the court of Weimar called upon Oken either to suppress the Isis or resign his professorship. He chose the latter alternative. The publication of the Isis at Weimar was prohibited. Oken made arrangements for its issue at Rudolstadt, and this continued uninterruptedly until the year 1848.

In 1821 Oken promulgated in his Isis the first idea of the annual general meetings of the German naturalists and medical practitioners, which happy idea was realized in the following year, when the first meeting was held at Leipzig. The British Association for the Advancement of Science was at the outset avowedly organized after the German or Okenian model.

In 1828 Oken resumed his original humble duties as privatdocent in the newly-established university of Munich, and soon

afterwards he was appointed ordinary professor in the same university. In 1832, on the proposal by the Bavarian government to transfer him to a professorship in a provincial university of the state, he resigned his appointments and left the kingdom. He was appointed in 1833 to the professorship of natural history in the then recently-established university of Zurich. There he continued to reside, fulfilling his professional duties and promoting the progress of his favourite sciences, until his death on the 11th of August 1851.

All Oken's writings are eminently deductive illustrations of a foregone and assumed principle, which, with other philosophers of all the mysteries of nature. According to him, the head was a the transcendental school, he deemed equal to the explanation of

repetition of the trunk-a kind of second trunk, with its limbs and other appendages; this sum of his observations and comparisons few of which he ever gave in detail-ought always to be borne in mind in comparing the share taken by Oken in homological anatomy with the progress made by other cultivators of that philosophical branch of the science. The idea of the analogy between the skull, or parts of the skull, and the vertebral column had been previously propounded and ventilated in their lectures by J. H. F. Autenreith and K. F. Kielmeyer, and in the writings of J. P. Frank. By Oken it was applied chiefly in illustration of the mystical system of Schelling-the" allin-all" and "all-in-every-part." From the carliest to the latest of Oken's writings on the subject," the head is a repetition of the whole trunk with all its systems: the brain is the spinal cord; the cranium is the vertebral column; the mouth is intestine and abdomen; the nose is the lungs and thorax; the jaws are the limbs; and the teeth the claws or nails." J. B. von Spix, in his folio Cephalogenesis (1818), richly illustrated comparative craniology, but presented the facts under the same transcendental guise; and Cuvier ably availed himself of the extravagances of these disciples of Schelling to cast ridicule on the whole inquiry into those higher relations of parts to the archetype which Sir Richard Owen called "general homologies." The vertebral theory of the skull had practically disappeared from anatomical science when the labours of Cuvier drew to their close. In Owen's Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton the idea was not only revived but worked out for the first time inductively, and the theory rightly stated, as follows: "The head is not a virtual equivalent of the trunk, but is only a portion, i.e. certain modified segments, of the whole body. The jaws are the 'haemal arches of the first two segments; they are not limbs of the head" (p. 176).

Vaguely and strangely, however, as Oken had blended the idea with his a priori conception of the nature of the head, the chance of appropriating it seems to have overcome the moral sense of osteology had early attracted Goethe's attention. Goethe-unless indeed the poet deceived himself. Comparative In 1786 he published at Jena his essay Ueber den Zwischenkieferknochen des Menschen und der Thiere, showing that the intermaxillary bone existed in man as well as in brutes. But not a word in this essay gives the remotest hint of his having then possessed the idea of the vertebral analogies of the skull. In 1820, in his Morphologie, he first publicly stated that thirty years before the date of that publi cation he had discovered the secret relationship between the vertebrae and the bones of the head, and that he had always continued to meditate on this subject. The circumstances under which the idea are suspiciously analogous to those described by Oken in 1807, poet, in 1820, narrates having become inspired with the original as producing the same effect on his mind. A bleached skull is accidentally discovered in both instances: in Oken's it was that of a deer in the Harz forest; in Goethe's it was that of a sheep picked up on the shores of the Lido, at Venice.

It may be assumed that Oken when a privat-docent at Göttingen in 1806 knew nothing of this unpublished idea or discovery of Goethe, and that Goethe first became aware that Oken had the idea of the vertebral relations of the skull when he listened to the introductory discourse in which the young professor, invited by the poet to Jena, selected this very idea for its subject. It is incredible that Oken, had he adopted the idea from Goethe, or been aware of an anticipation by him, should have omitted to acknowledge the source-should not rather have eagerly embraced so appropriate an opportunity of doing graceful homage to the originality and genius of his patron.

The anatomist having lectured for an hour plainly unconscious of any such anticipation, it seems hardly less incredible that the poet should not have mentioned to the young lecturer his previous conception of the vertebro-cranial theory, and the singular coincidence of the accidental circumstance which he subsequently alleged to have produced that discovery. On the contrary, Goethe permits Oken to publish his famous lecture, with the same unconsciousness of any anticipation as when he delivered it; and Oken, in the same state of belief, transmits a copy to Goethe (Isis, No. 7) who thereupon honours the professor with special marks of attention and an invitation to his house. No hint of any claim of the host is given to the guest; no word of reclamation in any shape appears for some

years. In Goethe's Tages- und Jahres-Hefte, he refers to two friends, Reimer and Voigt, as being cognizant in 1807 of his theory. Why did not one or other of these make known to Oken that he had been so anticipated? "I told my friends to keep quiet," writes Goethe in 1825! Spix, in the meanwhile, in 1815, contributes his share to the development of Oken's idea in his Cephalogenesis. Ulrich follows in 1816 with his Schildkrötenschädel; next appears the contribution, in 1818, by L. H. Bojanus, to the vertebral theory of the skull, amplified in the Paragon to that anatomist's admirable Anatome Testudinis Europaeae (1821). And now for the first time, in 1818, Bojanus, visiting some friends at Weimar, there hears the rumour that his friend Oken had been anticipated by the great poet. He communicates it to Oken, who, like an honest man, at once published the statement made by Goethe's friends in the Isis of that year, offering no reflection on the poet, but restricting himself to a detailed and interesting account of the circumstances under which he himself had been led independently to make his discovery when wandering in 1806 through the Harz. It was enough for him thus to vindicate his own claims; he abstains from any comment reflecting on Goethe, and maintained the same blameless silence when Goethe ventured for the first time to claim for himself, in 1820, the merit of having entertained the same idea, or made the discovery, thirty years previously. The German naturalists held their annual meeting at Jena in 1836, and there Kieser publicly bore testimony, from personal knowledge, to the circumstances and dates of Oken's discovery. However, in the edition of Hegel's works by Michelet (Berlin, 1842), there appeared the following paragraph: "The type-bone is the dorsal vertebra, provided inwards with a hole and outwards with processes, every bone being only a modification of it. This idea originated with Goethe, who worked it out in a treatise written in 1785, and published it in his Morphologie (1820), p. 162. Oken, to whom the treatise was communicated, has pretended that the idea was his own properly, and has reaped the honour of it." This accusation again called out Oken, who thoroughly refuted it in an able, circumstantial and temperate statement in part vii. of the Isis (1847). Goethe's osteological essay of 1785, the only one he printed in that century, is on a different subject. In the Morphologic of 1820-1824 Goethe distinctly declares that he had never published his ideas on the vertebral theory of the skull. He could not, therefore, have sent any such essay to Oken before the year 1807. Oken, in reference to his previous endurance of Goethe's pretensions, states that, "being well aware that his fellow-labourers in natural science thoroughly appreciated the true state of the case, he confided in quiet silence in their judgment. Meckel, Spix, Ulrich, Bojanus, Carus, Cuvier, Geoffroy St Hilaire, Albers, Straus-Durckheim, Owen, Kieser and Lichtenstein had recorded their judgment in his favour and against Goethe. But upon the appearance of the new assault in Michelet's edition of Hegel he could no longer remain silent." Oken's bold axiom that heat is but a mode of motion of light, and the idea broached in his essay on generation (1805) that "all the parts of higher animals are made up of an aggregate of Infusoria or animated globular monads," are both of the same order as his proposition of the head being a repetition of the trunk, with its vertebrae and limbs. Science would have profited no more from the one idea without the subsequent experimental discoveries of H. C. Oersted and M. Faraday, or from the other without the microscopical observations of Robert Brown, J. M. Schleiden and T. Schwann, than from the third notion without the inductive demonstration of the segmental constitution of the skull by Owen. It is questionable, indeed, whether in either case the discoverers of the true theories were excited to their labours, or in any way influenced, by the a priori guesses of Oken; more probable is it that the requisite researches and genuine deductions therefrom were the results of the correlated fitness of the stage of the science and the gifts of its true cultivators at such particular stage.

The following is a list of Oken's principal works: Grundriss der Naturphilosophie, der Theorie der Sinne, und der darauf gegründeten Classification der Thiere (1802); Die Zeugung (1805); Abriss der Biologie (1805); Beiträge zur vergleichenden Zoologie, Anatomie und Physiologie (along with Kieser, 1806-1807); Ueber die Bedeutung der Schädelknochen (1807); Ueber das Universum als Fortsetzung des Sinnensystems (1803); Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts, der Finsterniss, der Farben und der Wärme (1808); Grundzeichnung des natürlichen Systems der Erze (1809); Ueber den Werth der Naturgeschichte (1809); Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie (1809-1811; 2nd ed., 1831; 3rd ed., 1843; Eng. trans., Elements of Physiophilosophy, 1847); Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte (1813, 1815, 1825); Handbuch der Naturgeschichte zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen (1816-1820); Naturgeschichte für Schulen (1821); Esquisse d'un Système d'Anatomie, de Physiologie, et d'Histoire Naturelle (1812); Allgemeine Naturgeschichte (1833-1842, 14 vols.). He also contributed a large number of papers to the 5s and other journals. (R. O.)

OKHOTSK, SEA OF, a part of the western Pacific Ocean, lying between the peninsula of Kamchatka, the Kurile Islands, the Japanese island of Yezo, the island of Sakhalin, and the Amur province of East Siberia. The Sakhalin Gulf and Gulf of Tartary connect it with the Japanese Sea on the west of

the island of Sakhalin, and on the south of this island is the La Pérouse Strait.

OKI, a group of islands belonging to Japan, lying due north of the province of Izumo, at the intersection of 36° N. and 133° E. The group consists of one large island called Dogo, and three smaller isles-Chiburi-shima, Nishi-no-shima, and Naka-noshima-which are collectively known as Dozen. These four islands have a coast-line of 182 m., an area of 130 sq. m., and a population of 63,000. The island of Dogo has two high peaks, Daimanji-mine (2185 ft.) and Omine-yama (2128 ft.). The chief town is Saigo in Dogo, distant about 40 m. from the port of Sakai in Izumo. The name Oki-no-shima signifies "islands in the offing," and the place is celebrated in Japanese history not only because the possession of the islands was much disputed in feudal days, but also because an ex-emperor and an emperor were banished thither by the Hojo regents in the 13th century.

OKLAHOMA (a Choctaw Indian word meaning" red people "), a south central state of the United States of America lying between 33° 35′ and 37° N. lat. and 94° 29′ and 103° W. long. It is bounded N. by Colorado and Kansas; E. by Missouri and Arkansas; S. by Texas, from which it is separated in part by the Red river; and W. by Texas and New Mexico. It has a total area of 70,057 sq. m., of which 643 sq. m. are water-surface. Although the extreme western limit of the state is the 103rd meridian, the only portion W. of the rooth meridian is a strip of land about 35 m. wide in the present Beaver, Texas and Cimarron counties, and formerly designated as "No Man's Land." Physiography. The topographical features of the state exhibit considerable diversity, ranging from wide treeless plains in the terms, however, the surface may be described as a vast rolling W. to rugged and heavily wooded mountains in the E. In general plain having a gentle southern and eastern slope. The elevations above the sea range from 4700 ft. in the extreme N.W. to about 350 ft. in the S.E. The southern and eastern slopes are remarkably uniform; between the northern and southern boundaries E. of the 100th meridian there is a general difference in elevation of from 200 to 300 ft., while from W. to E. there is an average decline of about 3 ft. to the mile. The state has a mean elevation of 1300 ft. with 34,930 sq. m. below 1000 ft; 25,400 sq. m. between 1000 and 2000 ft.; 6500 sq. m. between 2000 and 3000 ft.; and 3600 sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft.

The western portion of the Ozark Mountains enters Oklahoma near the centre of the eastern boundary, and extends W.S.W. half way across the state in a chain of hills gradually decreasing in height. In the south central part of the state is an elevated tableland known as the Arbuckle Mountains. In its western portion this tableland attains an elevation of about 1350 ft. above the sea and lies about 400 ft. above the bordering plains. At its eastern termination, where it merges with the plains, it has an elevation of about 750 ft. Sixty miles N.W. of this plateau lie the Wichita Mountains, a straggling range of rugged peaks rising abruptly from a level plain. This range extends from Fort Sill north-westward beyond Granite, a distance of 65 m., with some breaks in the second haif of this area. The highest peaks are not more than 1500 ft. above the plain, but on account of their steep and rugged slopes they are difficult to ascend. A third group of hills, the Chautauqua Mountains, lie in the W. in Blaine and Canadian counties, their main axis being almost parallel with the North Fork of the Canadian river. With the exception of these isolated clusters of hills the western portion of the state consists almost entirely of rolling prairie. The extreme north-western part of Oklahoma is a lofty tableland forming part of the Great Plains region E. of the Rocky Mountains.

The prairies N. of the Arkansas and W. of the Neosho rivers are deeply carved by small streams, and in the western portion of this area, where the formation consists of alternating shales and sandstones, the easily eroded rocks have been carved into canyons, buttes and mesas. South of the Arkansas river these ledges of sandstone continue as far as Okmulgee, but the evidences of erosion are less noticeable. East of the Neosho river the prairies merge into a hilly woodland. In the N.W. four large salt plains form a striking physical feature. Of these the most noted is the Big Salt Plain of the Cimarron river, in Woodward county, which varies in width fromm. to 2 m. and extends along the river for 8 m. The plain is almost perfectly level, covered with snowy-white saline crystals, and contains many salt springs. The other saline areas are the boundary; the Salt Creek Plain, 3 m. long and 100 yds. wide, in Little Salt Plain, which lies on the Cimarron river, near the Kansas Blaine county; and the Salt Fork Plain, 6 m. wide and 8 m. long, so called from its position on the Salt Fork of the Arkansas river.

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