| and four are signed and dated, while seventeen are signed with the name but not with the date.

Adrian Ostade was the contemporary of David Teniers and Adrian Brouwer. Like them he spent his life in the delineation of the homeliest subjects-tavern scenes, village fairs and country quarters. Between Teniers and Ostade the contrast lies in the different condition of the agricultural classes of Brabant and Holland, and the atmosphere and dwellings that were peculiar to each region. Brabant has more sun, more comfort and a higher type of humanity; Teniers, in consequence, is silvery and sparkling; the people he paints are fair specimens of a wellbuilt race. Holland, in the vicinity of Haarlem seems to have suffered much from war; the air is moist and hazy, and the

Ireland and France, and he became an accomplished athlete and by no means an indifferent scholar. Having come to London in 1652 he was rightly suspected of sympathizing with the exiled royalists, and in 1655 was put into prison by Cromwell; after his release about a year later he went to Holland and married a Dutch lady of good family, accompanying Charles II. to England in 1660. In 1661 Butler became a member of both the English and the Irish Houses of Commons, representing Bristol in the former and Dublin University in the latter House; and in 1662 was made an Irish peer as earl of Ossory. He held several military appointments, in 1665 was made lieutenantgeneral of the army in Ireland, and in 1666 was created an English peer as Lord Butler; but almost as soon as he appeared in the House of Lords he was imprisoned for two days for chal-people, as depicted by Ostade, are short, ill-favoured and marked lenging the duke of Buckingham. In 1665 a fortunate accident had allowed Ossory to take part in a big naval fight with the Dutch, and in May 1672, being now in command of a ship, he fought against the same enemies in Southwold Bay, serving with great distinction on both occasions. The earl was partly responsible for this latter struggle, as in March 1672 before war was declared he had attacked the Dutch Smyrna fleet; an action which he is said to have greatly regretted later in life. Whilst visiting France in 1672 he rejected the liberal offers made by Louis XIV to induce him to enter the service of France, and returning to England he added to his high reputation by his conduct during a sea-fight in August 1673. The earl was intimate with William, prince of Orange, and in 1077 he joined the allied army in the Netherlands, commanding the British section and winning great fame at the siege of Mons in 1678. He acted as deputy for his father, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and in parliament he defended Ormonde's Irish administration with great vigour. In 1680 he was appointed governor of Tangier, but his death on the 30th of July 1680 prevented him from taking up his new duties. One of his most intimate friends was John Evelyn, who eulogizes him in his Diary. Ossory had eleven children, and his eldest son James became duke of Ormonde in 1688.

See T. Carte, Life of James, duke of Ormonde (1851); and J. Evelyn, Diary, edited by W. Bray (1890).

OSSORY (Osraighe), an ancient kingdom of Ireland, in the south-west of Leinster. The name is preserved by dioceses of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Church. The kingdom of Ossory was founded in the 2nd century A.D, and its kings maintained their position until 1110.

OSTADE, the name of two Dutch painters whose ancestors were settled at Eyndhoven, near the village of Ostaden. Early in the 17th century Jan Hendricx, a weaver, moved from Eyndhoven to Haarlem, where he married and founded a large family. The eldest and youngest of his sons became celebrated artists.

1. ADRIAN OSTADE (1610-1685), the eldest of Jan Hendricx's sons, was born and died at Haarlem. According to Houbraken he was taught by Frans Hals, at that time master of Adrian Brouwer. At twenty-six he joined a company of the civic guard at Haarlem, and at twenty-eight he married. His wife died in 1640 and he speedily re-married, but again became a widower in 1666. He took the highest honours of his profession, the presidency of the painters' gild at Haarlem, in 1662. Among the treasures of the Louvre collection, a striking picture represents the father of a large family sitting in state with his wife at his side in a handsomely furnished room, surrounded by his son and five daughters, and a young married couple. It is an old tradition that Ostade here painted himself and his children in holiday attire; yet the style is much too refined for the painter of boors, and Ostade had but one daughter. The number of Ostade's pictures is given by Smith at three hundred and eighty-five, but by Hofstede de Groot (1910) at over 900. At his death the stock of his unsold pieces was over two hundred. His engraved plates were put up to auction, with the pictures, and fifty etched plates-most of them dated 1647-1648-were disposed of in 1686. Two hundred and twenty of his pictures are in public and private collections, of which one hundred

with the stamp of adversity on their features and dress. Brouwer, who painted the Dutch boor in his frolics and passion, imported more of the spirit of Frans Hals into his delineations than his colleague; but the type is the same as Ostade's. During the first years of his career Ostade displayed the same tendency to exaggeration and frolic as his comrade, but he is to be distinguished from his rival by a more general use of the principles of light and shade, and especially by a greater concentration of light on a small surface in contrast, with a broad expanse of gloom. The key of his harmonies remains for a time in the scale of greys. But his treatment is dry and careful, and in this style he shuns no difficulties of detail, representing cottages inside and out, with the vine leaves covering the poorness of the outer walls, and nothing inside to deck the patchwork of rafters and thatch, or tumble-down chimneys and ladder staircases, that make up the sordid interior of the Dutch rustic of those days. The greatness of Ostade lies in the fact that he often caught the poetic side of the life of the peasant class, in spite of its ugliness, and stunted form and misshapen features. He did so by giving their vulgar sports, their quarrels, even their quieter moods of enjoyment, the magic light of the sungleam, and by clothing the wreck of cottages with gay vegetation.

It was natural that, with the tendency to effect which marked Ostade from the first, he should have been fired by emulation to rival the masterpieces of Rembrandt. His early pictures are not so rare but that we can trace how he glided out of one period into the other. Before the dispersion of the Gsell collection at Vienna in 1872, it was easy to study the steel-grey harmonies and exaggerated caricature of his early works in the period intervening between 1632 and 1638. There is a picture of a "Countryman having his Tooth Drawn," in the Vienna Gallery, unsigned, and painted about 1632; a Bagpiper" of 1635 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at ruhe, Darmstadt and Dresden; and "Card Players" of 1637 in the Vienna; cottage scenes of 1635 and 1636, in the museums of KarlsLiechtenstein palace at Vienna, which make up for the loss of the Gsell collection. The same style marks most of those pieces. About 1638 or 1640 the influence of Rembrandt suddenly changed his style, and he painted the" Annunciation "of the Brunswick museum, where the angels appearing in the sky to Dutch boors half asleep amidst their cattle, sheep and dogs, in front of a cottage, at once recall the similar subject by Rembrandt and his effective mode of lighting the principal groups by rays propelled to the earth out of a murky sky But Ostade was not successful in this effort to vulgarize Scripture. He might have been pardoned had he given dramatic force and expression to his picture; but his shepherds were only boors without much emotion, passion or surprise. His picture was an effect of light, as such masterly, in its sketchy rubbings, of dark brown tone relieved by strongly impasted lights, but without the very qualities which made his usual subjects attractive. When, in 1642, he painted the beautiful interior at the Louvre, in which a mother tends her child in a cradle at the side of a great chimney near which her husband is sitting, the darkness of a country loft is dimly illumined by a beam from the sun that shines on the casement, and one might think the painter intended to depict the Nativity, but that there is nothing holy in all the surroundings, nothing attractive indeed except the wonderful Rembrandtesque transparency, the brown tone, and the admirable keeping of the minutest parts. Ostade was more at home in a similar effect applied to the commonplace incident of the "Slaughtering of a Pig." of the masterpieces of 1643, once in the Gsell collection. In this and similar subjects of previous and succeeding years, he returned to the homely subjects in which his power and wonderful observation made him a master. He does not seem to have gone back to

one

gospel illustrations till 1667, when he produced an admirable Nativity," which is only surpassed as regards arrangement and colour by Rembrandt's "Carpenter's Family" at the Louvre, or the

very distinct peculiarities. The air which pervades his composition is warm and sunny, yet mellow and hazy, as if the sky were veiled with a vapour coloured by moor smoke. The trees are rubbings of umber, in which the prominent foliage is tipped with touches hardened in a liquid state by amber varnish mediums. The same principle applied to details such as glazed bricks or rents in the mud lining of cottages gives an unreal and conventional stamp to those particular parts. But these blemishes are forgotten when one looks at the broad contrasts of light and shade and the masterly figures of horses and riders, and travellers and rustics, or quarrelling children and dogs, poultry and cattle, amongst which a favourite place is always given to the white horse, which seems as invariable an accompaniment as the grey in the skirmishes and fairs of Wouverman. But it is in winter scenes that Isaac displays the best qualities. The absence of foliage, the crisp atmosphere, the calm air of cold January days, unsullied by smoke or vapour, preclude the use of the brown tinge, and leave the painter no choice but to ring the changes on opal tints of great variety, upon which the figures emerge with masterly effect on the light background upon which they are thrown. Amongst the roadside inns which will best repay attention we should notice those of Buckingham Palace, the National Gallery, the Wallace and Holford collections in England, and those of the Louvre, Berlin, Hermitage and Rotterdam museums and the Rothschild collection at Vienna on the Continent. The finest of the ice scenes is the famous one at the Louvre.

"Woodcutter and Children 'in the gallery of Cassel. Innumerable | series from 1646 to 1649. In this, the last form of his art, Isaac has almost are the more familiar themes to which he devoted his brush during this interval, from small single figures, representing smokers or drinkers, to vulgarized allegories of the five senses (Hermitage and Brunswick galleries), half-lengths of fishmongers and bakers and cottage brawls, or scenes of gambling, or itinerant players and quacks, and nine-pin players in the open air. The humour in some of these pieces is contagious, as in the "Tavern Scene" of the Lacaze collection (Louvre, 1653). His art may be studied in the large series of dated pieces which adorn every European capital, from St Petersburg to London. Buckingham Palace has a large number, and many a good specimen lies hidden in the private collections of England. But if we should select a few as peculiarly worthy of attention, we might point to the "Rustics in a Tavern of 1662 at the Hague, the "Village School" of the same year at the Louvre, the Tavern Court-yard" of 1670 at Cassel, the "Sportsmen's Rest" of 1671 at Amsterdam and the "Fiddler and his Audience" of 1673 at the Hague. At Amsterdam we have the likeness of a painter, sitting with his back to the spectator, at his easel. The colour-grinder is at work in a corner, a pupil prepares a palette and a black dog sleeps on the ground. A replica of this picture, with the date of 1666, is in the Dresden gallery. Both specimens are supposed to represent Ostade himself. But unfortunately we see the artist's back and not his face. In his etching (Bartsch, 32) the painter shows himself in profile, at work on a canvas. Two of his latest dated works, the " Village Street" and "Skittle Players," which were noteworthy items in the Ashburton and Ellesmere collections, were executed in 1676 without any sign of declining powers. The prices which Ostade received are not known, but pictures which were worth £40 in 1750 were worth £1000 a century later, and Earl Dudley gave £4120 for a cottage interior in 1876. The signatures of Ostade vary at different periods. But the first two letters are generally interlaced. Up to 1635 Ostade writes himself Ostaden, e.g. in the " Bagpiper" of 1635 in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. Later on he uses the long s (f), and occasionally he signs in capital letters. His pupils are his own brother Isaac, Cornelis Bega, Cornelis Dusart and Richard Brakenburg.

a

2. ISAAC OSTADE (1621-1649) was born in Haarlem, and began his studies under Adrian, with whom he remained till 1641, when he started on his own account. At an early period he felt the influence of Rembrandt, and this is apparent in a "Slaughtered Pig" of 1639, in the gallery of Augsburg. But he soon reverted to a style more suited to his brush. He produced pictures in 1641-1642 on the lines of his brother-amongst these, the "Five Senses," which Adrian afterwards represented by a "Man reading a Paper," a "Peasant tasting Beer," a "Rustic smearing his Sores with Ointment" and a Countryman sniffing at a Snuff-box." A specimen of Isaac's work at this period may be seen in the " Laughing Boor with a Pot of Beer," in the museum of Amsterdam; the cottage interior, with two peasants and three children near a fire, in the Berlin museum, Concert," with people listening to singers accompanied by a piper and flute player, and a "Boor stealing a Kiss from a Woman," in the Lacaze collection at the Louvre. The interior at Berlin is lighted from a casement in the same Rembrandtesque style as Adrian's interior of 1643 at the Louvre. The low price he received for his pictures of this character-in which he could only hope to remain a satellite of Adrian-induced him gradually to abandon the cottage subjects of his brother for landscapes in the fashion of Esaias Van de Velde and Salomon Ruisdael. Once only, in 1645, he seems to have fallen into the old groove, when he produced the "Slaughtered Pig," with the boy puffing out a bladder, in the museum of Lille. But this was an exception. Isaac's progress in his new path was greatly facilitated by his previous experience as a figure painter; and, although he now selected his subjects either from village high streets or frozen canals, he gave fresh life to the scenes he depicted by groups of people full of movement and animation, which he relieved in their coarse humours and sordid appearance by a refined and searching study of picturesque contrasts. He did not live long enough to bring his art to the highest perfection. He died on the 16th October 1649 having painted about 400 pictures (see H. de Groot, 1910).

The first manifestation of Isaac's surrender of Adrian's style is apparent in 1644 when the skating and sledging scenes were executed which we see in the Lacaze collection and the galleries of the Hermitage, Antwerp and Lille. Three of these examples bear the artist's name, spelt Isack van Ostade, and the dates of 1644 and 1645. The roadside inns, with halts of travellers, form a compact

For paintings and etchings see Les Frères Ostade, by Marguerite van de Wiele (Paris, 1893). For his etchings see L'Euvre d'Ostade, cu description des eaux-fortes de ce maître, &c., by Auguste d'Orange (1860), and Catalogue raisonné de toutes les estampes qui forment l'œuvre gravé d'Adrian van Ostade, by L. E. Faucheux (Paris, 1862). (J. A. C.; P. G. K.) OSTASHKOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, on Lake Seliger, 108 m. W.N.W. of the city. of Tver; pop. 10,457. The climate is damp and unhealthy. The town has tanneries, and is a centre for the making of boots and shoes, for agricultural implements, fishing-nets and the building of boats. The advantageous site, the proximity of the Smolenskiy Zhitnyi monastery, a pilgrim resort on an island of the lake and the early development of certain petty trades combined to bring prosperity to Ostashkov. Its cathedral (1672-1685) contains valuable offerings, as also do two other churches of the same century.

OSTEND (Flemish and French Ostende), a town of Belgium in the province of West Flanders. Pop. (1904) 41,181. It is the most fashionable seaside resort and the second port of the kingdom. Situated on the North Sea it forms almost the central point on the 42 m. of sea-coast that belong to Belgium. In the middle ages it was strongly fortified and underwent several sieges, the most notable was that of 1601-1604, when it only surrendered by order of the states to Spinola. In 1865 the last vestiges of its ramparts were removed, and since that date,' but more especially since 1898, a new town has been created. The digue or parade, constructed of solid granite, extends for over 2 m. along the shore in a southerly direction from the long jetty which protects the entrance to the port. A fine casino and the royal châlet are prominent objects along the sea front, and the sea-bathing is unsurpassed. In the rear of the town is a fine park to which a race-course has been added. Extensive works were begun in 1900 for the purpose of carrying the harbour back 2 m., and a series of large docks were excavated and extensive quays constructed. The docks accommodate ships of large tonnage. Apart from these docks Ostend has a very considerable passenger and provision traffic with England, and is the headquarters of the Belgian fishing fleet, estimated to employ 400 boats and 1600 men and boys. Ostend is in direct railway communication with Brussels, Cologne and Berlin. It is also the starting point of several light railways along the coast and to the southern towns of Flanders.

OSTEND COMPANY. The success of the Dutch, English and French East India Companies led the merchants and shipowners of Ostend to desire to establish direct commercial relations with the Indies. A private company was accordingly formed in 1717 and some ships sent to the East. The emperor Charles VI. encouraged his subjects to raise subscriptions for the new enterprise, but did not grant a charter or letters patent. Some success attended these early efforts, but the jealousy of the neighbouring nations was shown by the seizure of an Ostend

manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, cigars and leather, | 4th century A.D., though there are several Christian inscriptions and tanneries, dyeworks and gypsum quarries. In recent years Osterode has become celebrated as a health resort.. ÖSTERSUND, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (län) of Jemtland, on the east shore of Storsjö (Great Lake), 364 m. N. by W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 6866. It lies at an elevation of about 1000 ft. and is the metropolis of a mountainous and beautiful district. Immediately facing the town is the lofty island of Frös, with which it is connected by a bridge 1148 ft. long. A runic stone commemorates the building of a bridge here by a Christian missionary, Austmader, son of Gudfast. Östersund was founded in 1786. It has a considerable trade in timber, and a local trade by steamers on Storsjö. Electricity is obtained for lighting and other purposes by utilizing the abundant water-power in the district. OSTERVALD, JEAN FRÉDÉRIC (1663-1747), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Neuchâtel on the 25th of November 1663. He was educated at Zürich and at Saumur (where he graduated), studied theology at Orleans under Claude Pajon, at Paris under Jean Claude and at Geneva under Louis Tronchin, and was ordained to the ministry in his native place in 1683. As preacher, pastor, lecturer and author, he attained a position of great influence in his day, he and his friends, J. A. Turretin of Geneva and S. Werenfels (1657-1740) of Basel, forming what was once called the "Swiss triumvirate." He was thought to show a leaning towards Socinianism and Arminianism. He died on the 14th of April 1747.

His principal works are Traité des sources de la corruption qui règne aujourd'hui parmi les Chrétiens (1700), translated into English, Dutch and German, practically a plea for a more ethical and less doctrinal type of Christianity; Catéchisme ou instruction dans la religion chrétienne (1702), also translated into English, Dutch and German; Traité contre l'impureté (1707); Sermons sur divers textes 1722-1724); Theologiae compendium (1739); and Traduction ar la Bible (1724). Ail his writings attained great popularity among French Protestants; many were translated into various languages; and "Ostervald's Bible," a revision of the French translation, in particular, was long well known and much valued in Britain.

OSTIA, an ancient town and harbour of Latium, Italy, at the mouth of the river Tiber on its left bank. It lies 14 m. S.W. from Rome by the Via Ostiensis, a road of very ancient origin still followed by a modern road which preserves some traces of the old pavement and remains of several ancient bridges. It was the first colony ever founded by Rome-according to the Romans themselves, by Ancus Martius-and took its name from its position at the mouth (ostium) of the river. Its origin is connected with the establishment of the salt-marshes (salinaeSee SALARIA, VIA) which only ceased to exist in 1875, though it acquired importance as a harbour in very early times. When it began to have magistrates of its own is not known: nor indeed have we any inscriptions from Ostia that can be certainly attributed to the Republican period. Under the empire, on the other hand, it had the ordinary magistrates of a colony, the chief being duoviri, charged with the administration of justice, whose place was taken every fifth year by duoviri censoria potestate quinquennales, then quaestores (or financial officials) and then aediles (building officials). There were also the usual decuriones (town councillors) and Augustales. We learn much as to these magistrates from the large number of inscriptions that have been found (over 2000 in Ostia and Portus taken together) and also as to the cults. Vulcan was the most important-perhaps in early times the only-deity worshipped at Ostia, and the priesthood of Vulcan was held sometimes by Roman senators. The Dioscuri too, as patrons of mariners, were held in honour. Later we find the worship of Isis and of Cybele,the latter being especially flourishing, with large corporations of dendrophori (priests who carried branches of trees in procession) and canephori (basketcarriers): the worship of Mithras, too, had a large number of followers. There was a temple of Serapis at Portus. No traces of Jewish worship have been found at Ostia, but at Portus a considerable number of Jewish inscriptions in Greek have come to light.

of an earlier date; but the first bishop of Ostia of whom we have any certain knowledge dates from A.D. 313. The see still continues, and is indeed held by the dean of the sacred college of cardinals. A large number of the inscriptions are also connected with the various guilds-firemen (centonarii), carpenters and metal workers (fabri), boatmen, lightermen and others (see J. P. Waltzing, Les Corporations professionelles, Brussels and Liége). Until Trajan formed the port of Centumcellae (Civitavecchia) Ostia was the best harbour along the low sandy coast of central Italy between Monte Argentario and Monte Circeo. It is mentioned in 354 B.C. as a trading port, and became important as a naval harbour during the Punic Wars. Its commerce increased with the growth of Rome, and this, and the decay of agriculture in Italy, which obliged the capital to rely almost entirely on imported corn (the importation of which was, from 267 B.C. onwards, under the charge of a special quaestor stationed at Ostia), rendered the possession of Ostia the key to the situation on more than one occasion (87 B.C., A.D. 409 and 537). The inhabitants of the colony were thus regarded as a permanent garrison, and at first freed from the obligations of ordinary military service, until they were later on obliged to serve in the fleet. Ostia, however, was by no means an ideal harbour; the mouth of the Tiber is exposed to the south-west wind, which often did damage in the harbour itself; in A.D. 62 no less than 200 ships with their cargoes were sunk, and there was an important guild of divers (urinatores) at Ostia. The difficulties of the harbour were increased by the continued silting up, produced by the enormous amount of solid material brought down by the river. Even in Strabo's time (v. 3. 5, p. 231) the harbour of Ostia had become dangerous: he speaks of it as a " city without a harbour owing to the silting up brought about by the Tiber... : the ships anchor at considerable risk in the roads, but the love of gain prevails: for the large number of lighters which receive the cargoes and reload them renders the time short before they can enter the river, and having lightened a part of their cargoes they sail in and ascend to Rome."

Caesar had projected remedial measures, but (as in so many cases) had never been able to carry them out, and it was not until the time of Claudius that the problem was approached. That emperor constructed a large new harbour on the right bank, 2 m. N. of Ostia, with an area of 170 acres enclosed by two curving moles, with an artificial island, supporting a lofty lighthouse, in the centre of the space between them. This was connected with the Tiber by an artificial channel, and by this work Claudius, according to the inscriptions which he erected in A.D. 46, freed the city of Rome from the danger of inundation. The harbour was named by Nero, Portus Augusti. Trajan found himself obliged in A.D. 103, owing to the silting up of the Claudian harbour, and the increase of trade, to construct another port further inland—a hexagonal basin enclosing an area of 97 acres with enormous warehouses-communicating with the harbour of Claudius and with the Tiber by means of the channel already constructed by Claudius, this channel being prolonged so as to give also direct access to the sea. This became blocked in the middle ages, but was reopened by Paul V. in 1612, and is still in use. Indeed it forms the right arm of the Tiber, by which navigation is carried on at the present day, and is known as the Fossa Trajana. The island between the two arms acquired the name of Insula Sacra (still called Isola Sacra) by which Procopius mentions it.

Ostia thus lost a considerable amount of its trade, but its importance still continued to be great. The 2nd and 3rd centuries, indeed, are the high-water mark of its prosperity: and it still possessed a mint in the 4th century A.D. During the Gothic wars, however, trade was confined to Portus, and the ravages of pirates led to its gradual abandonment. Gregory IV: constructed in 830 a fortified enceinte, called Gregoriopolis, in the eastern portion of the ancient city, and the Saracens were signally defeated here under Leo IV. (847-856). The battle is represented in Giulio Romano's fresco from Raphael's design

Of the church in Ostia there is no authentic record before the in the Stanza dell' Incendio in the Vatican.