and negro slaves. Between them there was no adequate middle class. For such a population the democratic New England form of government was unsuited. Local government in the South was of many varieties, but that of Virginia serves as a fair example.

The Virginia Parish. - The English parish was introduced into Virginia, but it never became a democratic institution. For church purposes there was a select vestry of twelve men, at first elected by the people, but they obtained the power of filling vacancies in their own body, and thus became a "close corporation."" In addition to their church duties they usually acted as overseers of the poor.

The Beginning of the Virginia County. In 1634 the legislature of Virginia divided the colony into shires, and these speedily became the units of local government. The governor appointed justices of the peace, in each shire or county, usually eight in number, who made up the county court. This court in each county began in time to nominate candidates to fill vacancies in its own body, and the governor generally appointed the nominees without question. The county courts were now like the parish vestry, close corporations. In addition to their duties as judicial bodies the county courts appointed highway surveyors and constables, assessed county taxes, and had care of county property. The county sheriff, appointed by the governor, was, in addition to his duties as executive officer of the court, a collector of taxes and county treasurer. In Virginia and the South generally, the great mass of the people

1

1 The name indicates that "a close corporation" is an association of men which cannot be entered by outsiders except with its consent.

had little to do with local government, and therefore failed to receive the political education which the town meeting so abundantly gave New England. The county system did, however, and notably in Virginia, develop able political leaders among the aristocracy of the planters.

The Present Southern County.

Throughout the South

the county remains the unit of local government, in spite of efforts to introduce the town system. In most of the southern states from three to five commissioners are elected in each county, whose duties are similar to those of the Massachusetts county commissioners.

Practically all local government belongs to the county, though in every state there are subdivisions of the county which are school districts. In Louisiana the district corresponding to the county of other states is called the parish and in Delaware the old "hundred" survives in name and is the unit for representation in the state legislature.

Town and County Government in the Middle Atlantic States. The middle states in regard to population as well as in the character of the country are midway between New England and the South. Their system of local government, as might be expected, is halfway between the extremes of town and county types. In the middle states Pennsylvania tends most to the county type, while New York has a system of local government in which the town is still an important factor.

In Pennsylvania, county and township date from early colonial times. William Penn changed the local government in the colony so that most of the important func-. tions were given to the county, and there they have re

1

mained to the present time. Most of the county officers are elected by the people. Each county has a board of three county commissioners, one of whom must belong to the minority political party, elected for a term of three years. The county commissioners have charge of the county property, represent the county in court, and fix the county tax rate, though the taxes are collected by township collectors. Each county has such officials as sheriff, treasurer, clerk of courts, register and recorder, chief clerk, coroner, and auditor. A district attorney, elected by the people, is prosecuting attorney in criminal cases. A county judge, elected for a term of ten years, presides over the county courts. The Pennsylvania township is of minor importance. There are no town meetings. In each township are road supervisors, tax assessors and collectors, six school directors, two justices of peace, and a constable. The care of the poor is a township function, except in counties possessing poorhouses.

Township and County Government in New York. In New York the township (or town) is more important than in any other of the middle Atlantic states. Its history begins in the village assemblies of the Dutch, which become town meetings under English occupation. Town meetings are held every two years, generally on the second Tuesday of February, though they may be held any time between February first and May first. At the town meeting by-laws are adopted and other town business, including the election of officers, carried on. The supervisor is the chief town executive officer. In addition to his executive duties he acts as treasurer, except in case of moneys raised for poor relief and for bridges and highways, and represents

the township in legal actions to which it is a party. Other town officials are town clerk, four justices of peace, constables (number to be determined by vote of the township, but not to exceed five), three tax assessors, a tax collector, highway commissioners, and usually an overseer of the poor, though often the county attends to poor relief.

A board of supervisors, composed of the supervisor from each township, has general charge of county business. The duties of the board are similar to those of the Pennsylvania county commissioners. There is a county court, except in New York county, over which a judge elected by the voters for a period of six years presides.

In counties having a population of over 40,000 there is a surrogate's court. The surrogate is elected for a term of six years, and his court has charge of the settlement of estates, the guardianship of orphans, and matters relating to wills. Where there is no surrogate, the county judge acts as surrogate. Other county officials are the sheriff, four coroners, county clerk, county treasurer, superintendent of poor, and a school commissioner.

Local Government in the West. Local government throughout the West is like the system of New York or Pennsylvania, and is, therefore, halfway between the town and county system. In some states the town is the more important; in others, the county. The men who established state and local governments in the West were chiefly emigrants from the eastern states, and as a rule they followed parallels of latitude in their western journey. The tendency everywhere was to establish a form of local government similar to that to which the settlers had been accustomed in the East. In settling the public land, at

least one section (640 acres) in every township was reserved for school purposes. This plan not only served the cause of public education, but had its effect on local government, as it made necessary that the township should have some connection with the schools.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. Show the influence of the character of the country on local government in New England and the South.

2. Compare the merits of the town with the county system of local government.

3. Describe the origin of local government in the West.

4. Why is the town meeting not suitable for a large population? 5. Describe the duties of the sheriff.

QUESTIONS SUGGESTED BY THE TEXT

1. Describe town and county government in your own state. Is its local government modeled upon the town, county, or "mixed" system? Account for its system.

2. What restrictions are placed upon the action of town and county governments in your state? (Consult a lawyer if convenient.)

3. How many towns (or townships) are there in your county? How many counties in your state?

4. Why are counties and townships more equal in size in the West than in the East, and why are boundary lines more regular in the West?

5. Are there any counties in your state that are not divided into towns (or townships)?