ing in the colonies was growing bitter, and a call for a congress to protest against the acts of Parliament met with a ready response. All the colonies, except Georgia, were represented in the First Continental Congress which met in Philadelphia. The Congress issued a new declaration of rights addressed to the people of England and America and sent a petition to the king.

But they did more than this; they formed an American Association for the purpose of enforcing non-importation, and this also served to unite all who were opposed to British aggression.

The First Continental Congress was not a government it possessed no authority. It was, however, the most important assembly that had yet come together on American soil, and it served to strengthen the idea of united action. Before separating, the delegates called another congress to meet the 10th day of May, 1775, in Philadelphia.

Second Continental Congress (1775-1781).- Originally the Congress was organized as a single house in which each colony or state had an equal vote. There was no executive, but Congress in itself united executive and legislative functions. It was the first body in America to pass legislative acts for all the colonies. Strictly speaking, the Congress then was hardly a government; its acts were not legally binding upon the colonies or upon individuals. This second Continental Congress, however, was a revolutionary body, because the country was in a state of war. Accordingly it assumed and exercised authority. All of the thirteen colonies were represented in the Second Continental Congress. This remarkable assembly, without any definite

authority, exercised the functions of a government for six years. During this time by its authority an army was organized, a debt incurred, independence declared, revenue raised, treaties negotiated, war waged, and other governmental duties performed. The second Continental Congress is famous as the one which issued the immortal Declaration of Independence.

The Confederation. As early as 1777, Congress passed the plan of union called the Articles of Confederation. It was provided that the Articles should go into effect as soon as they were ratified by all the states. Some of the smaller states refused to ratify until the larger states would surrender their western lands to the national government. Maryland was particularly obstinate. The delay in ratification was really an immense service to the Union, as the ceding of the western lands was the foundation of the national domain. Had Virginia alone retained her claims to western territory, the history of the United States might have been different.

The Articles were at length adopted by all the states in 1781. The purpose of this "league of friendship” was "common defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare." It was declared that each state retained its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right which was not by the Confederation expressly given to the United States in Congress assembled.

Nature of Government Under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles of Confederation really formed a league and not a State. The people at that time feared

the creation of a tyrant at home, and it was only through bitter experience that they were to learn that a weak government is an object of contempt, and that liberty is possible with a strong central authority.

Government was carried on by a Congress of one house. Each state might be represented in Congress by not less than two or more than seven delegates, to be chosen annually in whatever manner the state legislature might direct.

The majority of the delegates were to decide the vote of the state on all questions, and each state had one vote. No important measure could pass without the assent of nine states. There was no national judiciary and no national executive; a committee consisting of one member from each state might exercise certain powers during a recess of Congress.

The Powers of Congress.- Congress theoretically had authority to declare war, make treaties, appropriate money, regulate coinage, build and equip a navy, and regulate other matters of common interest, but its real authority was very limited.

Weakness of the Government. The most conspicuous feature of the government was its weakness. The principal defects were as follows:

1. Congress had no authority to enforce its decrees. A single state might with safety disregard an act of Congress, as there was no way to compel obedience. There was neither judiciary nor executive.

2. All important measures required the votes of nine states. This meant no legislation on most matters.

3. No ability to regulate Commerce. Congress had no power to tax imports. England put heavy taxes on American goods and closed her ports in the West Indies to American ships, but Congress had no power to tax English goods or close American ports in return. Congress was even powerless to regulate commerce between the different states. New York taxed farm products from New Jersey and Connecticut, but Congress could do nothing.

4. Impossibility of amendment. The Articles could be amended only by unanimous vote, and every effort at amendment failed through the selfish action of one or more states.

5. Treaty obligations could not be enforced. Foreign states looked with contempt upon so weak a government and would not enter into relations with it. England kept troops on the western border in defiance of the treaty of 1783.

6. There were no means of raising adequate revenue. Most of the revenue was raised by taxes upon the states, but the states paid only part of the sums due or neglected to pay anything. No more money could be borrowed, and Congress was obliged to issue paper money; but the people did not believe that it would ever be redeemed in gold and silver, and it soon became practically worthless.

During the first few years of its existence, the Confederation did not show its fundamental weakness; the early issues of paper money even seemed at first to give rise to prosperity. As time went on, paper money ceased to have value, the states more and more disregarded demands for money, and the interest on the public debt could not be paid. Congress was unable to pay even the ordinary expenses of government, and all efforts to amend the Consti